https://www.marinespecies.org/i/index.php?title=Harmful_algal_bloom&feed=atom&action=historyHarmful algal bloom - Revision history2024-03-28T18:52:04ZRevision history for this page on the wikiMediaWiki 1.31.7https://www.marinespecies.org/i/index.php?title=Harmful_algal_bloom&diff=80724&oldid=prevDronkers J at 20:27, 12 February 20242024-02-12T20:27:04Z<p></p>
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</table>Dronkers Jhttps://www.marinespecies.org/i/index.php?title=Harmful_algal_bloom&diff=79404&oldid=prevDronkers J at 10:57, 8 October 20212021-10-08T10:57:31Z<p></p>
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<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #222; text-align: center;">Revision as of 10:57, 8 October 2021</td>
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<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The factors that promote the occurrence of HABs are expected to become more important in the future. This holds in the first place for global warming and for eutrophication, in particular the nitrogen component of eutrophication. Efforts to combat harmful algal blooms are vital, but simple solutions do not exist. It is widely recognized that action is needed to halt global climate change and to reduce nitrogen emissions from agriculture. To this end, agreements have been made and initiatives have been developed at various administrative levels. Important international frameworks have been set up for climate policy that will eventually reverse the trend of global warming. A comparable encompassing agreement has not yet been established for agricultural emissions, although in Europe the [[Nitrates Directive]] has been in force since 1991. This directive has contributed to a reduction in N emissions from European agriculture<ref>Velthof G.L., Lesschen, J.P., Webb, J., Pietrzak, S., Miatkowski, Z., Pinto, M., Kros, J. and Oenema, O. 2014.The impact of the Nitrates Directive on nitrogen emissions from agriculture in the EU-27during 2000–2008. Science of the Total Environment 468–469: 1225–1233</ref> - however, without special focus on the nitrate: ammonium ratio of the emissions.  </div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The factors that promote the occurrence of HABs are expected to become more important in the future. This holds in the first place for global warming and for eutrophication, in particular the nitrogen component of eutrophication. Efforts to combat harmful algal blooms are vital, but simple solutions do not exist. It is widely recognized that action is needed to halt global climate change and to reduce nitrogen emissions from agriculture. To this end, agreements have been made and initiatives have been developed at various administrative levels. Important international frameworks have been set up for climate policy that will eventually reverse the trend of global warming. A comparable encompassing agreement has not yet been established for agricultural emissions, although in Europe the [[Nitrates Directive]] has been in force since 1991. This directive has contributed to a reduction in N emissions from European agriculture<ref>Velthof G.L., Lesschen, J.P., Webb, J., Pietrzak, S., Miatkowski, Z., Pinto, M., Kros, J. and Oenema, O. 2014.The impact of the Nitrates Directive on nitrogen emissions from agriculture in the EU-27during 2000–2008. Science of the Total Environment 468–469: 1225–1233</ref> - however, without special focus on the nitrate: ammonium ratio of the emissions.  </div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Local reduction of nutrient concentrations can be achieved by harvesting marine products that grow on nutrients and provide economic value (benefit from ecosystem goods and services, see [[Mariculture]]) <ref>Burkholder, J. M., and Shumway, S.E. 2011. Bivalve shellfish aquaculture and eutrophication, in Shellfish Aquaculture and the Environment, ed. S.E. Shumway (Hoboken, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.), 155–215</ref><ref>Petersen, J.K., Holmer, M., Termansen, M. and Hasler, B. 2019. Nutrient extraction through bivalves. In: Smaal, A.C., Ferreira, J.G., Grant, J., Petersen, J.K., Strand, O. (Eds.), Goods and Services of Marine Bivalves. Springer, Cham, pp. 179–208</ref>. Examples are the harvesting of farmed mussels<ref>Kotta, J., Futter, M., Kaasik, A., Liversage, K., Rätsep, M., Barboza, F. R., et al. 2020. Cleaning up seas using blue growth initiatives: mussel farming for eutrophication control in the Baltic Sea. Sci. Total Environ. 709:136144</ref> and the harvesting of seaweed<ref>Xiao, X., Agusti, S., Lin, F., Li, K., Pan, Y., Yu, Y., Zheng, Y., Wu, J. and Duarte, C.M. 2017. Nutrient removal from Chinese coastal waters by large-scale seaweed aquaculture. Scientific Reports 7: 46613 DOI: 10.1038/srep46613</ref>. The restoration of critical coastal habitats (seagrass meadows, coral reefs, oyster reefs, mangrove forests and salt-marshes) also contributes to remove nutrients, increases sequestration of organic matter in benthic sediment, and increases rates of denitrification<ref>Malone, T.C. and Newton, A. 2020. The Globalization of Cultural Eutrophication in the Coastal Ocean: Causes and Consequences. Front. Mar. Sci. 7:670</ref>.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Local reduction of nutrient concentrations can be achieved by harvesting marine products that grow on nutrients and provide economic value (benefit from ecosystem goods and services, see [[Mariculture]]) <ref>Burkholder, J. M., and Shumway, S.E. 2011. Bivalve shellfish aquaculture and eutrophication, in Shellfish Aquaculture and the Environment, ed. S.E. Shumway (Hoboken, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.), 155–215</ref><ref>Petersen, J.K., Holmer, M., Termansen, M. and Hasler, B. 2019. Nutrient extraction through bivalves. In: Smaal, A.C., Ferreira, J.G., Grant, J., Petersen, J.K., Strand, O. (Eds.), Goods and Services of Marine Bivalves. Springer, Cham, pp. 179–208</ref>. Examples are the harvesting of farmed mussels<ref>Kotta, J., Futter, M., Kaasik, A., Liversage, K., Rätsep, M., Barboza, F. R., et al. 2020. Cleaning up seas using blue growth initiatives: mussel farming for eutrophication control in the Baltic Sea. Sci. Total Environ. 709:136144</ref> and the harvesting of seaweed<ref>Xiao, X., Agusti, S., Lin, F., Li, K., Pan, Y., Yu, Y., Zheng, Y., Wu, J. and Duarte, C.M. 2017. Nutrient removal from Chinese coastal waters by large-scale seaweed aquaculture. Scientific Reports 7: 46613 DOI: 10.1038/srep46613</ref>. The <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[Ecosystem </ins>restoration<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|restoration]] </ins>of critical coastal habitats (seagrass meadows, coral reefs, oyster reefs, mangrove forests and salt-marshes) also contributes to remove nutrients, increases sequestration of organic matter in benthic sediment, and increases rates of denitrification<ref>Malone, T.C. and Newton, A. 2020. The Globalization of Cultural Eutrophication in the Coastal Ocean: Causes and Consequences. Front. Mar. Sci. 7:670</ref>.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Certain measures may contribute to mitigate the impact of HABs (for a more detailed and complete overview see e.g. Berdalet et al., 2016<ref name=Ber16/> and Wells et al., 2020<ref> Wells, M.L., Karlson, B., Wulff, A., Kudela, R., Trick, C., Asnaghi, V., Berdalet, E., Cochlan, W.,. Davidson, K., De Rijcke, M., Dutkiewicz, S., Hallegraeff, G., Flynn, K.J., Legrand, C., Paerl, H., Slke, J., Suikkanen, S., Thompson, P. and Trainer, V.L. 2020. Future HAB science: Directions and challenges in a changing climate. Harmful Algae 91, 101632</ref>):</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Certain measures may contribute to mitigate the impact of HABs (for a more detailed and complete overview see e.g. Berdalet et al., 2016<ref name=Ber16/> and Wells et al., 2020<ref> Wells, M.L., Karlson, B., Wulff, A., Kudela, R., Trick, C., Asnaghi, V., Berdalet, E., Cochlan, W.,. Davidson, K., De Rijcke, M., Dutkiewicz, S., Hallegraeff, G., Flynn, K.J., Legrand, C., Paerl, H., Slke, J., Suikkanen, S., Thompson, P. and Trainer, V.L. 2020. Future HAB science: Directions and challenges in a changing climate. Harmful Algae 91, 101632</ref>):</div></td></tr>
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</table>Dronkers Jhttps://www.marinespecies.org/i/index.php?title=Harmful_algal_bloom&diff=79150&oldid=prevDronkers J at 10:19, 6 August 20212021-08-06T10:19:41Z<p></p>
<a href="https://www.marinespecies.org/i/index.php?title=Harmful_algal_bloom&diff=79150&oldid=79146">Show changes</a>Dronkers Jhttps://www.marinespecies.org/i/index.php?title=Harmful_algal_bloom&diff=79146&oldid=prevDronkers J at 15:27, 3 August 20212021-08-03T15:27:35Z<p></p>
<a href="https://www.marinespecies.org/i/index.php?title=Harmful_algal_bloom&diff=79146&oldid=78346">Show changes</a>Dronkers Jhttps://www.marinespecies.org/i/index.php?title=Harmful_algal_bloom&diff=78346&oldid=prevDronkers J at 21:43, 12 November 20202020-11-12T21:43:40Z<p></p>
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<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #222; text-align: center;">Revision as of 21:43, 12 November 2020</td>
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<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div># Higher temperatures. The optimal growth of diatoms occurs at relatively low temperatures compared to flagellates and cyanobacteria<ref>Anderson, N.J. 2000. Diatoms, temperature and climate change. Eur. J. Phycol. 35: 307–314</ref>. Experiments show that the occurrence of HABs increases with temperature<ref>Paerl, H.W. and Scott, J.T. 2010. Throwing fuel on the fire: synergistic effects of excessive nitrogen inputs and global warming on harmful algal blooms. Environ. Sci. Technol. 44: 7756–7758</ref>. Warmer waters are thought to favor smaller-sized cells as they are more efficient in harvesting light and nutrients and maintaining their position in the euphotic zone<ref>Daufresne, M., Lengefellner, K. and Sommer, U. 2009. Global warming benefits the small in</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div># Higher temperatures. The optimal growth of diatoms occurs at relatively low temperatures compared to flagellates and cyanobacteria<ref>Anderson, N.J. 2000. Diatoms, temperature and climate change. Eur. J. Phycol. 35: 307–314</ref>. Experiments show that the occurrence of HABs increases with temperature<ref>Paerl, H.W. and Scott, J.T. 2010. Throwing fuel on the fire: synergistic effects of excessive nitrogen inputs and global warming on harmful algal blooms. Environ. Sci. Technol. 44: 7756–7758</ref>. Warmer waters are thought to favor smaller-sized cells as they are more efficient in harvesting light and nutrients and maintaining their position in the euphotic zone<ref>Daufresne, M., Lengefellner, K. and Sommer, U. 2009. Global warming benefits the small in</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>aquatic ecosystems. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 106: 12788–12793<ref>. Cyanobacteria dominate in warm nutrient-poor water <ref>Maranon, E., Cermeno, P., Latasa, M. and Tadonleke, R.D. 2012. Temperature, resources, and phytoplankton size structure in the ocean. Limnol. Oceanogr. 67: 1266–1278</ref>.  </div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>aquatic ecosystems. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 106: 12788–12793<ref>. Cyanobacteria dominate in warm nutrient-poor water <ref>Maranon, E., Cermeno, P., Latasa, M. and Tadonleke, R.D. 2012. Temperature, resources, and phytoplankton size structure in the ocean. Limnol. Oceanogr. 67: 1266–1278</ref>.  </div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div># A high ratio of dissolved nitrogen N versus phosphorus P. This has several causes: (a) Very small cells, such as picocyanobacteria, have a lower requirement for P due to the smaller need for structural components in the cell<ref>Finkel, Z.V., J. Beardall, K.J. Flynn, A. Quiqq, T.A.V. Rees, and J.A. Raven. 2010. Phytoplankton in a changing world: Cell size and elemental stoichiometry. Journal of Plankton Research 32:119–137</ref>; (b) Many dinoflagellates are mixotrophic <ref>Mitra, A. and Flynn, K.J. 2010. Modelling mixotrophy in harmful algal blooms: more or less the sum of the parts? J. Mar. Syst. 83: 58–169</ref><ref>Stoecker, D., Tillmann, U. and Graneli, E. 2006. Phagotrophy in harmful algae. In: Graneli, E. and Turner, J. (eds) Ecology of Harmful Algae, Series: Ecological Studies, Vol. 189, Springer Verlag, Heidelberg, pp 177–187</ref>, which means that they can ingest organic material and thus correct an imbalance in the  [[Stoichiometry|stoichiometric]] N:P ratio<ref>Burkholder, J.M., Glibert, P.M. and Skelton, H. 2008. Mixotrophy, a major mode of nutrition for harmful algal species in eutrophic waters. Harmful Algae 8: 77–93</ref><ref>Jeong, H.J., Yoo, Y.D., Kim, J.S., Seong, K.A., Kang, N.S. and Kim, T.H., 2010. Growth, feeding and ecological roles of the mixotrophic and heterotrophic dinoflagellates in marine planktonic food webs. Ocean Sci. J. 45: 65–91</ref><ref>Flynn, K.J., Stoecker, D.K., Mitra, A., Raven, J.A., Glibert, P.M., Hansen, P.J., Graneli, E. and Burkholder, J.M. 2013. Misuse of the phytoplankton-zooplankton dichotomy: the need to assign organisms as mixotrophs within plankton functional types. J. Plankt. Res 35: 3–11</ref>; (c) Harmful algae can release excess N via toxins <ref name=G16>Glibert, P.M., Wilkerson, F.P., Dugdale, R.C., Raven, J.A., Dupont, C., Leavitt, P.R., Parker, A.E., Burkholder, J.M. and Kana, T.M. 2016. Pluses and minuses of ammonium and nitrate uptake and assimilation by phytoplankton and implications for productivity and community composition, with emphasis on nitrogen-enriched conditions. Limnol. Oceanogr. 61: 165–197</ref>. Many cyanobacteria and marine dinoflagellate HABs are more toxic when N is in stoichiometric excess over P. In the dinoflagellate ''Alexandrium tamarense'', saxitoxin production has been shown to increase by three- to fourfold under P deficiency<ref>Graneli, E., and Flynn, K.J. 2006. Chemical and physical factors influencing toxin content. Pp. 229–241 in Ecology of Harmful Algae. E. Graneli, and J.T. Turner, eds, Springer, Heidelberg, Germany</ref>.  </div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div># A high ratio of dissolved nitrogen N versus phosphorus P. This has several causes: (a) Very small cells, such as picocyanobacteria, have a lower requirement for P due to the smaller need for structural components in the cell<ref>Finkel, Z.V., J. Beardall, K.J. Flynn, A. Quiqq, T.A.V. Rees, and J.A. Raven. 2010. Phytoplankton in a changing world: Cell size and elemental stoichiometry. Journal of Plankton Research 32:119–137</ref>; (b) Many dinoflagellates are mixotrophic <ref>Mitra, A. and Flynn, K.J. 2010. Modelling mixotrophy in harmful algal blooms: more or less the sum of the parts? J. Mar. Syst. 83: 58–169</ref><ref>Stoecker, D., Tillmann, U. and Graneli, E. 2006. Phagotrophy in harmful algae. In: Graneli, E. and Turner, J. (eds) Ecology of Harmful Algae, Series: Ecological Studies, Vol. 189, Springer Verlag, Heidelberg, pp 177–187</ref>, which means that they can ingest <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">dissolved and particulate </ins>organic material and thus correct an imbalance in the  [[Stoichiometry|stoichiometric]] N:P ratio<ref>Burkholder, J.M., Glibert, P.M. and Skelton, H. 2008. Mixotrophy, a major mode of nutrition for harmful algal species in eutrophic waters. Harmful Algae 8: 77–93</ref><ref>Jeong, H.J., Yoo, Y.D., Kim, J.S., Seong, K.A., Kang, N.S. and Kim, T.H., 2010. Growth, feeding and ecological roles of the mixotrophic and heterotrophic dinoflagellates in marine planktonic food webs. Ocean Sci. J. 45: 65–91</ref><ref>Flynn, K.J., Stoecker, D.K., Mitra, A., Raven, J.A., Glibert, P.M., Hansen, P.J., Graneli, E. and Burkholder, J.M. 2013. Misuse of the phytoplankton-zooplankton dichotomy: the need to assign organisms as mixotrophs within plankton functional types. J. Plankt. Res 35: 3–11</ref>; (c) Harmful algae can release excess N via toxins <ref name=G16>Glibert, P.M., Wilkerson, F.P., Dugdale, R.C., Raven, J.A., Dupont, C., Leavitt, P.R., Parker, A.E., Burkholder, J.M. and Kana, T.M. 2016. Pluses and minuses of ammonium and nitrate uptake and assimilation by phytoplankton and implications for productivity and community composition, with emphasis on nitrogen-enriched conditions. Limnol. Oceanogr. 61: 165–197</ref>. Many cyanobacteria and marine dinoflagellate HABs are more toxic when N is in stoichiometric excess over P. In the dinoflagellate ''Alexandrium tamarense'', saxitoxin production has been shown to increase by three- to fourfold under P deficiency<ref>Graneli, E., and Flynn, K.J. 2006. Chemical and physical factors influencing toxin content. Pp. 229–241 in Ecology of Harmful Algae. E. Graneli, and J.T. Turner, eds, Springer, Heidelberg, Germany</ref>.  </div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div># Increasing proportions of N in the form of ammonium and urea (CO(NH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>). Causes: (a) Diatoms grow better on nitrate (NO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup>) whereas flagellates and cyanobacteria prefer ammonium (NH<sub>4</sub><sup>+</sup>) <ref name=G17>Glibert, P.M. 2017. Eutrophication, harmful algae and biodiversity - challenging paradigms in a world of complex nutrient changes. Mar. Poll. Bull. 124: 591–606</ref>; (b) Mixotrophic dinoflagellates can use urea as food source<ref name=G14>Glibert, P.M., Manager, R., Sobota, D.J., Bouwman, L. 2014. The Haber-Bosch-Harmful algal bloom (HB-HAB) link. Environ. Res. Lett. 9, 105001</ref>.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div># Increasing proportions of N in the form of ammonium and urea (CO(NH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>2</sub>). Causes: (a) Diatoms grow better on nitrate (NO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup>) whereas flagellates and cyanobacteria prefer ammonium (NH<sub>4</sub><sup>+</sup>) <ref name=G17>Glibert, P.M. 2017. Eutrophication, harmful algae and biodiversity - challenging paradigms in a world of complex nutrient changes. Mar. Poll. Bull. 124: 591–606</ref>; (b) Mixotrophic dinoflagellates can use urea as food source<ref name=G14>Glibert, P.M., Manager, R., Sobota, D.J., Bouwman, L. 2014. The Haber-Bosch-Harmful algal bloom (HB-HAB) link. Environ. Res. Lett. 9, 105001</ref>.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div># Enhancement of stratified conditions. Causes are: (a) Larger phytoplankton sinks more easily out of the photic zone, thus smaller plankton dominates <ref>Winder, M., Reuter, J.E. and Schladow, S.G. 2009. Lake warming favours small-sized plankton diatom species. Proc. Roy. Soc B 276: 427–435</ref>; (b) Many harmful dinoflagellates are mixotrophs which can swim to the pycnocline to capture organic prey<ref>Stoecker, D.K., Hansen, P.J., Caron, D.A. and Mitra, A. 2017. Mixotrophy in the marine plankton. Ann. Rev. Mar. Sci. 9: 311–335</ref>.  </div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div># Enhancement of stratified conditions. Causes are: (a) Larger phytoplankton sinks more easily out of the photic zone, thus smaller plankton dominates <ref>Winder, M., Reuter, J.E. and Schladow, S.G. 2009. Lake warming favours small-sized plankton diatom species. Proc. Roy. Soc B 276: 427–435</ref>; (b) Many harmful dinoflagellates are mixotrophs which can swim to the pycnocline to capture organic prey<ref>Stoecker, D.K., Hansen, P.J., Caron, D.A. and Mitra, A. 2017. Mixotrophy in the marine plankton. Ann. Rev. Mar. Sci. 9: 311–335</ref>.  </div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno" id="mw-diff-left-l40" >Line 40:</td>
<td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 40:</td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==Causes for an increase in HABs==</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==Causes for an increase in HABs==</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Although no quantitative estimates can be given, there is strong evidence that the occurrence of harmful algal blooms has increased during the past decades. The causes for an increase in HABs are related to the furtherance of the above mentioned conditions favorable <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">for </del>their development. Probable causes are:</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Although no quantitative estimates can be given, there is strong evidence that the occurrence of harmful algal blooms has increased during the past decades. The causes for an increase in HABs are related to the furtherance of the above mentioned conditions favorable <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">to </ins>their development. Probable causes are:</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div># Increase of nitrogen-rich effluents and atmospheric emissions to the sea. The main cause is the increasing use of fertilizers<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">, which contain a </del>much <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">higher proportion of nitrogen </del>than <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">phosphorus </del>(<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">about a factor of 3, </del>see Fig. 1)<ref name=GB>Glibert, P.M. and Burford, M.A. 2017. Globally changing nutrient loads and harmful algal blooms: Recent advances, new paradigms, and continuing challenges. Oceanography 30: 58–69</ref>. Only about half of the fertilizer <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">nutrients used in agriculture </del>is taken up by crops; the remainder is stored in the soil and <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">released </del>to the sea. Other N-rich sources are the widespread and expanding fish farms, <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">that </del>release N mainly in chemically reduced form (e.g., ammonium, dissolved organic N, DON)<ref>Bouwman, A.F., Beusen, A.H.W., Glibert, P.M., Overbeck, C., Pawlowski, M., Silveiva, J.H., Mulsow, S., Yu, R. and Zhou, M.J. 2013. Mariculture: significant and expanding cause of coastal nutrient enrichment. Environ. Res. Lett. 8, 044026</ref>.  </div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div># Increase of nitrogen-rich effluents and atmospheric emissions to the sea. The main cause is the increasing use of fertilizers<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">; in the period 1970-2000 the N-fertilizer use has increased </ins>much <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">faster </ins>than <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">the P-fertilizer use </ins>(see Fig. 1)<ref name=GB>Glibert, P.M. and Burford, M.A. 2017. Globally changing nutrient loads and harmful algal blooms: Recent advances, new paradigms, and continuing challenges. Oceanography 30: 58–69</ref>. Only about half of the fertilizer <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">N </ins>is taken up by crops; the remainder is <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">partly </ins>stored in the soil and <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">partly emitted </ins>to the sea <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">via runoff and the atmosphere</ins>. Other N-rich sources are the widespread and expanding fish farms, <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">which </ins>release N mainly in chemically reduced form (e.g., ammonium, dissolved organic N, DON)<ref>Bouwman, A.F., Beusen, A.H.W., Glibert, P.M., Overbeck, C., Pawlowski, M., Silveiva, J.H., Mulsow, S., Yu, R. and Zhou, M.J. 2013. Mariculture: significant and expanding cause of coastal nutrient enrichment. Environ. Res. Lett. 8, 044026</ref>.  </div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div># Fertilizer effluents and emissions produce a shift from nitrate to ammonium and urea <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">that </del>favours HABs<ref name=G16/><ref name=G14/>.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div># Fertilizer effluents and emissions produce a shift from nitrate to ammonium and urea<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">, which </ins>favours HABs<ref name=G16/><ref name=G14/>.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div># Effects of climate change: (a) Rising seawater temperatures; (b) Intensification of sea water stratification; (c) Increase in peak river discharges and corresponding increase in nitrogen supply in coastal waters<ref>Howarth, R.W., Swaney, D.P., Boyer, E.W., Marino, R., Jaworski, N. and Goodale, C. 2006. The influence of climate on average nitrogen export from large watersheds in the Northeastern United States. Biogeochemistry 79: 163–186</ref>; (d) Increase in nutrient concentrations associated with intensification upwelling events<ref>Goes, J.I., Thoppil, P.G., Gomes, H.D.R. and Fasullo, J.T. 2005. Warming of the Eurasian landmass is making the Arabian Sea more productive. Science 308: 545–547</ref>.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div># Effects of climate change: (a) Rising seawater temperatures; (b) Intensification of sea water stratification; (c) Increase in peak river discharges and corresponding increase in nitrogen supply in coastal waters<ref>Howarth, R.W., Swaney, D.P., Boyer, E.W., Marino, R., Jaworski, N. and Goodale, C. 2006. The influence of climate on average nitrogen export from large watersheds in the Northeastern United States. Biogeochemistry 79: 163–186</ref>; (d) Increase in nutrient concentrations associated with intensification <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">of </ins>upwelling events<ref>Goes, J.I., Thoppil, P.G., Gomes, H.D.R. and Fasullo, J.T. 2005. Warming of the Eurasian landmass is making the Arabian Sea more productive. Science 308: 545–547</ref>.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div># Spreading of harmful algae species across the oceans by increased transport of algae with ship ballast water<ref name=Ber16/>.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div># Spreading of harmful algae species across the oceans by increased transport of algae with ship ballast water<ref name=Ber16/>.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[File:<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">NPfertlizerUse</del>.jpg|thumb|600px|center|Fig. 1. N and P content of global fertilizer use. <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">From </del>Glibert and Burford<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">, </del>2017<ref name=GB/>]]</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[File:<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">FertilizerUseNP</ins>.jpg|thumb|600px|center|Fig. 1. N and P content of global fertilizer use. <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">After </ins>Glibert and Burford <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">(</ins>2017<ref name=GB/><ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">) and FAO (2019<ref name=FAO>FAO. 2019. World fertilizer trends and outlook to 2022. FAO, Rome</ref>).</ins>]]</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
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<td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 63:</td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Measures to eliminate harmful algae, for example through the use of viruses, grazers or biocides, encounter serious problems due to hazardous side effects<ref>Paerl, H.W. 2018. Mitigating toxic planktonic cyanobacterial blooms in aquatic ecosystems facing increasing anthropogenic and climate pressures. Toxins 10, 76; doi:10.3390/toxins10020076</ref>. That is why many countries have bans on such measures. Experiments in Korea to remove toxic algae through flocculation using clay particles have reported successful application without harmful side effects<ref>Yu, Z.M., Song, X.X., Cao, X.H. and Liu, Y., 2017. Mitigation of harmful algal blooms using modified clays: theory, mechanisms, and applications. Harmful Algae 69: 48–64</ref>.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Measures to eliminate harmful algae, for example through the use of viruses, grazers or biocides, encounter serious problems due to hazardous side effects<ref>Paerl, H.W. 2018. Mitigating toxic planktonic cyanobacterial blooms in aquatic ecosystems facing increasing anthropogenic and climate pressures. Toxins 10, 76; doi:10.3390/toxins10020076</ref>. That is why many countries have bans on such measures. Experiments in Korea to remove toxic algae through flocculation using clay particles have reported successful application without harmful side effects<ref>Yu, Z.M., Song, X.X., Cao, X.H. and Liu, Y., 2017. Mitigation of harmful algal blooms using modified clays: theory, mechanisms, and applications. Harmful Algae 69: 48–64</ref>.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Another, more holistic approach to toxic HAB mitigation, is the restoration of coastal habitats <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">experimented in Puget Sound, USA, </del>with seagrass that harbor algicidal bacteria<ref>Inaba, N., Trainer, V.L., Onishi, Y., Ishii, K., Wyllie-Echeverria, S., Imai, I.and 2017. Algicidal and growth-inhibiting bacteria associated with seagrass and macroalgae beds in Puget Sounds, WA, USA. Harmful Algae 62: 136–147</ref><ref>Inaba, N., Trainer, V.L., Nagain, S., Kojima, S., Sakami, T., Takagi, S. and Imai, I. 2019. Dynamics of seagrass bed microbial communities used to control artificial Chattonella blooms: a microcosm study. Harmful Algae 84: 139–150</ref><del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">; this can be a promising type of measures</del>.   </div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Another, more holistic approach to toxic HAB mitigation <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">experimented in Puget Sound (USA)</ins>, is the restoration of coastal habitats with seagrass that harbor algicidal bacteria<ref>Inaba, N., Trainer, V.L., Onishi, Y., Ishii, K., Wyllie-Echeverria, S., Imai, I.and 2017. Algicidal and growth-inhibiting bacteria associated with seagrass and macroalgae beds in Puget Sounds, WA, USA. Harmful Algae 62: 136–147</ref><ref>Inaba, N., Trainer, V.L., Nagain, S., Kojima, S., Sakami, T., Takagi, S. and Imai, I. 2019. Dynamics of seagrass bed microbial communities used to control artificial Chattonella blooms: a microcosm study. Harmful Algae 84: 139–150</ref>.   </div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
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</table>Dronkers Jhttps://www.marinespecies.org/i/index.php?title=Harmful_algal_bloom&diff=78344&oldid=prevDronkers J at 15:27, 11 November 20202020-11-11T15:27:21Z<p></p>
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<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #222; text-align: center;">Revision as of 15:27, 11 November 2020</td>
</tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno" id="mw-diff-left-l62" >Line 62:</td>
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<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>*Furthering understanding of fundamental aspects of HAB species in terms of toxin production, life cycles and interactions with bacteria in order to develop better targeted measures.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>*Furthering understanding of fundamental aspects of HAB species in terms of toxin production, life cycles and interactions with bacteria in order to develop better targeted measures.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Measures to eliminate harmful algae, for example through the use of viruses, grazers or biocides, encounter serious problems due to hazardous side effects. That is why many countries have bans on such measures. Experiments in Korea to remove toxic algae through flocculation using clay particles have reported successful application without harmful side effects<ref>Yu, Z.M., Song, X.X., Cao, X.H. and Liu, Y., 2017. Mitigation of harmful algal blooms using modified clays: theory, mechanisms, and applications. Harmful Algae 69: 48–64</ref>.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Measures to eliminate harmful algae, for example through the use of viruses, grazers or biocides, encounter serious problems due to hazardous side effects<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"><ref>Paerl, H.W. 2018. Mitigating toxic planktonic cyanobacterial blooms in aquatic ecosystems facing increasing anthropogenic and climate pressures. Toxins 10, 76; doi:10.3390/toxins10020076</ref></ins>. That is why many countries have bans on such measures. Experiments in Korea to remove toxic algae through flocculation using clay particles have reported successful application without harmful side effects<ref>Yu, Z.M., Song, X.X., Cao, X.H. and Liu, Y., 2017. Mitigation of harmful algal blooms using modified clays: theory, mechanisms, and applications. Harmful Algae 69: 48–64</ref>.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Another, more holistic approach to toxic HAB mitigation, is the restoration of coastal habitats experimented in Puget Sound, USA, with seagrass that harbor algicidal bacteria<ref>Inaba, N., Trainer, V.L., Onishi, Y., Ishii, K., Wyllie-Echeverria, S., Imai, I.and 2017. Algicidal and growth-inhibiting bacteria associated with seagrass and macroalgae beds in Puget Sounds, WA, USA. Harmful Algae 62: 136–147</ref><ref>Inaba, N., Trainer, V.L., Nagain, S., Kojima, S., Sakami, T., Takagi, S. and Imai, I. 2019. Dynamics of seagrass bed microbial communities used to control artificial Chattonella blooms: a microcosm study. Harmful Algae 84: 139–150</ref>; this can be a promising type of measures.   </div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Another, more holistic approach to toxic HAB mitigation, is the restoration of coastal habitats experimented in Puget Sound, USA, with seagrass that harbor algicidal bacteria<ref>Inaba, N., Trainer, V.L., Onishi, Y., Ishii, K., Wyllie-Echeverria, S., Imai, I.and 2017. Algicidal and growth-inhibiting bacteria associated with seagrass and macroalgae beds in Puget Sounds, WA, USA. Harmful Algae 62: 136–147</ref><ref>Inaba, N., Trainer, V.L., Nagain, S., Kojima, S., Sakami, T., Takagi, S. and Imai, I. 2019. Dynamics of seagrass bed microbial communities used to control artificial Chattonella blooms: a microcosm study. Harmful Algae 84: 139–150</ref>; this can be a promising type of measures.   </div></td></tr>
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</table>Dronkers Jhttps://www.marinespecies.org/i/index.php?title=Harmful_algal_bloom&diff=78343&oldid=prevDronkers J at 11:35, 11 November 20202020-11-11T11:35:07Z<p></p>
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<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #222; text-align: center;">← Older revision</td>
<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #222; text-align: center;">Revision as of 11:35, 11 November 2020</td>
</tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno" id="mw-diff-left-l23" >Line 23:</td>
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<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Estimates are in the order of US$100 million per year in the United States, mainly related to aquaculture losses. A much higher estimate of about US $ 1 billion per year was estimated for Europe, mainly due to losses related to (not necessarily toxic) algal blooms affecting the attractiveness of beaches for coastal tourists<ref>Hoagland P. and Scatasta S. (2006) The economic effects of harmful algal blooms. In Graneli E. and Turner J.T. (eds) Ecology of harmful algae. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag, pp. 391–402</ref>.  </div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Estimates are in the order of US$100 million per year in the United States, mainly related to aquaculture losses. A much higher estimate of about US $ 1 billion per year was estimated for Europe, mainly due to losses related to (not necessarily toxic) algal blooms affecting the attractiveness of beaches for coastal tourists<ref>Hoagland P. and Scatasta S. (2006) The economic effects of harmful algal blooms. In Graneli E. and Turner J.T. (eds) Ecology of harmful algae. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag, pp. 391–402</ref>.  </div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The greatest direct effect of HABs concerns aquaculture. Aquaculture has experienced tremendous growth in recent decades and has become a food source on which much of the world's population depends. As the growth of aquaculture is expected to continue, harmful algal blooms are an increasing threat. The paradox is that the waste from <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">fish and shellfish </del>farms itself promotes conditions for the development of HABs<ref>Anderson, D. 2012. HABs in a changing world: a perspective on harmful algal blooms, their impacts, and research and management in a dynamic era of climactic and environmental change. Harmful Algae 2012 (2012). 2014 ; 2012: 3–17 PMID: 26640829; PMCID: PMC4667985</ref>.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The greatest direct effect of HABs concerns aquaculture. Aquaculture has experienced tremendous growth in recent decades and has become a food source on which much of the world's population depends. As the growth of aquaculture is expected to continue, harmful algal blooms are an increasing threat. The paradox is that the waste from <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">finfish </ins>farms itself promotes conditions for the development of HABs<ref>Anderson, D. 2012. HABs in a changing world: a perspective on harmful algal blooms, their impacts, and research and management in a dynamic era of climactic and environmental change. Harmful Algae 2012 (2012). 2014 ; 2012: 3–17 PMID: 26640829; PMCID: PMC4667985<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline"></ref><ref> Strain, P. M., and Hargrave, B. T. 2005. Salmon aquaculture, nutrient fluxes and ecosystem processes in Southwestern New Brunswick, in Environmental Effects of Marine Finfish Aquaculture, Handbook of Environmental Chemistry, ed. B. T. Hargrave (Berlin: Springer): 29–57</ins></ref>.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno" id="mw-diff-left-l42" >Line 42:</td>
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<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Although no quantitative estimates can be given, there is strong evidence that the occurrence of harmful algal blooms has increased during the past decades. The causes for an increase in HABs are related to the furtherance of the above mentioned conditions favorable for their development. Probable causes are:</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Although no quantitative estimates can be given, there is strong evidence that the occurrence of harmful algal blooms has increased during the past decades. The causes for an increase in HABs are related to the furtherance of the above mentioned conditions favorable for their development. Probable causes are:</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div># Increase of nitrogen-rich effluents and atmospheric emissions to the sea. The main cause is the increasing use of fertilizers, which contain a much higher proportion of nitrogen than phosphorus (about a factor of 3, see Fig. 1)<ref name=GB>Glibert, P.M. and Burford, M.A. 2017. Globally changing nutrient loads and harmful algal blooms: Recent advances, new paradigms, and continuing challenges. Oceanography 30: 58–69</ref>. Only about half of the fertilizer nutrients used in agriculture is taken up by crops; the remainder is stored in the soil and released to the sea. Other N-rich sources are the widespread and expanding fish <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">and shellfish </del>farms, that release N mainly in chemically reduced form (e.g., ammonium, dissolved organic N, DON)<ref>Bouwman, A.F., Beusen, A.H.W., Glibert, P.M., Overbeck, C., Pawlowski, M., Silveiva, J.H., Mulsow, S., Yu, R. and Zhou, M.J. 2013. Mariculture: significant and expanding cause of coastal nutrient enrichment. Environ. Res. Lett. 8, 044026</ref>.  </div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div># Increase of nitrogen-rich effluents and atmospheric emissions to the sea. The main cause is the increasing use of fertilizers, which contain a much higher proportion of nitrogen than phosphorus (about a factor of 3, see Fig. 1)<ref name=GB>Glibert, P.M. and Burford, M.A. 2017. Globally changing nutrient loads and harmful algal blooms: Recent advances, new paradigms, and continuing challenges. Oceanography 30: 58–69</ref>. Only about half of the fertilizer nutrients used in agriculture is taken up by crops; the remainder is stored in the soil and released to the sea. Other N-rich sources are the widespread and expanding fish farms, that release N mainly in chemically reduced form (e.g., ammonium, dissolved organic N, DON)<ref>Bouwman, A.F., Beusen, A.H.W., Glibert, P.M., Overbeck, C., Pawlowski, M., Silveiva, J.H., Mulsow, S., Yu, R. and Zhou, M.J. 2013. Mariculture: significant and expanding cause of coastal nutrient enrichment. Environ. Res. Lett. 8, 044026</ref>.  </div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div># Fertilizer effluents and emissions produce a shift from nitrate to ammonium and urea that favours HABs<ref name=G16/><ref name=G14/>.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div># Fertilizer effluents and emissions produce a shift from nitrate to ammonium and urea that favours HABs<ref name=G16/><ref name=G14/>.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div># Effects of climate change: (a) Rising seawater temperatures; (b) Intensification of sea water stratification; (c) Increase in peak river discharges and corresponding increase in nitrogen supply in coastal waters<ref>Howarth, R.W., Swaney, D.P., Boyer, E.W., Marino, R., Jaworski, N. and Goodale, C. 2006. The influence of climate on average nitrogen export from large watersheds in the Northeastern United States. Biogeochemistry 79: 163–186</ref>; (d) Increase in nutrient concentrations associated with intensification upwelling events<ref>Goes, J.I., Thoppil, P.G., Gomes, H.D.R. and Fasullo, J.T. 2005. Warming of the Eurasian landmass is making the Arabian Sea more productive. Science 308: 545–547</ref>.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div># Effects of climate change: (a) Rising seawater temperatures; (b) Intensification of sea water stratification; (c) Increase in peak river discharges and corresponding increase in nitrogen supply in coastal waters<ref>Howarth, R.W., Swaney, D.P., Boyer, E.W., Marino, R., Jaworski, N. and Goodale, C. 2006. The influence of climate on average nitrogen export from large watersheds in the Northeastern United States. Biogeochemistry 79: 163–186</ref>; (d) Increase in nutrient concentrations associated with intensification upwelling events<ref>Goes, J.I., Thoppil, P.G., Gomes, H.D.R. and Fasullo, J.T. 2005. Warming of the Eurasian landmass is making the Arabian Sea more productive. Science 308: 545–547</ref>.</div></td></tr>
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<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==Measures for reducing the risk of HABs==</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==Measures for reducing the risk of HABs==</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The factors that promote the occurrence of HABs are expected to become more important in the future. This holds in the first place for global warming and for eutrophication, in particular the nitrogen component of eutrophication. Efforts to combat harmful algal blooms are vital, but simple solutions do not exist. It is widely recognized that action is needed to halt global climate change and to reduce nitrogen emissions from agriculture. To this end, agreements have been made and initiatives have been developed at various administrative levels. Important international frameworks have been set up for climate policy that will eventually reverse the trend of global warming. A comparable encompassing agreement has not yet been established for agricultural emissions, although in Europe the [[Nitrates Directive]] has been in force since 1991. This directive has contributed to a reduction in N emissions from European agriculture<ref>Velthof G.L., Lesschen, J.P., Webb, J., Pietrzak, S., Miatkowski, Z., Pinto, M., Kros, J. and Oenema, O. 2014.The impact of the Nitrates Directive on nitrogen emissions from agriculture in the EU-27during 2000–2008. Science of <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">theTotal </del>Environment 468–469: 1225–1233</ref> - however, without special focus on the nitrate: ammonium ratio of the emissions.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The factors that promote the occurrence of HABs are expected to become more important in the future. This holds in the first place for global warming and for eutrophication, in particular the nitrogen component of eutrophication. Efforts to combat harmful algal blooms are vital, but simple solutions do not exist. It is widely recognized that action is needed to halt global climate change and to reduce nitrogen emissions from agriculture. To this end, agreements have been made and initiatives have been developed at various administrative levels. Important international frameworks have been set up for climate policy that will eventually reverse the trend of global warming. A comparable encompassing agreement has not yet been established for agricultural emissions, although in Europe the [[Nitrates Directive]] has been in force since 1991. This directive has contributed to a reduction in N emissions from European agriculture<ref>Velthof G.L., Lesschen, J.P., Webb, J., Pietrzak, S., Miatkowski, Z., Pinto, M., Kros, J. and Oenema, O. 2014.The impact of the Nitrates Directive on nitrogen emissions from agriculture in the EU-27during 2000–2008. Science of <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">the Total </ins>Environment 468–469: 1225–1233</ref> - however, without special focus on the nitrate: ammonium ratio of the emissions.  </div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Other </del>measures may <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">also </del>contribute to mitigate the impact of HABs<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">. Some important elements of HAB measures are mentioned below </del>(for a more detailed and complete overview see e.g. Berdalet et al., 2016<ref name=Ber16/> and Wells et al., 2020<ref> Wells, M.L., Karlson, B., Wulff, A., Kudela, R., Trick, C., Asnaghi, V., Berdalet, E., Cochlan, W.,. Davidson, K., De Rijcke, M., Dutkiewicz, S., Hallegraeff, G., Flynn, K.J., Legrand, C., Paerl, H., Slke, J., Suikkanen, S., Thompson, P. and Trainer, V.L. 2020. Future HAB science: Directions and challenges in a changing climate. Harmful Algae 91, 101632</ref>):</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div> </div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Local reduction of nutrient concentrations can be achieved by harvesting marine products that grow on nutrients and provide economic value (benefit from ecosystem goods and services) <ref>Burkholder, J. M., and Shumway, S.E. 2011. Bivalve shellfish aquaculture and eutrophication, in Shellfish Aquaculture and the Environment, ed. S.E. Shumway (Hoboken, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.), 155–215</ref><ref>Petersen, J.K., Holmer, M., Termansen, M., Hasler, B. 2019. Nutrient extraction through bivalves. In: Smaal, A.C., Ferreira, J.G., Grant, J., Petersen, J.K., Strand, O. (Eds.), Goods and Services of Marine Bivalves. Springer, Cham, pp. 179–208</ref>. Examples are the harvesting of farmed mussels<ref>Kotta, J., Futter, M., Kaasik, A., Liversage, K., Rätsep, M., Barboza, F. R., et al. 2020. Cleaning up seas using blue growth initiatives: mussel farming for eutrophication control in the Baltic Sea. Sci. Total Environ. 709:136144</ref> and the harvesting of seaweed<ref>Xiao, X., Agusti, S., Lin, F., Li, K., Pan, Y., Yu, Y., Zheng, Y., Wu, J. and Duarte, C.M. 2017. Nutrient removal from Chinese coastal waters by large-scale seaweed aquaculture. Scientific Reports 7: 46613 DOI: 10.1038/srep46613</ref>. The restoration of critical coastal habitats (seagrass meadows, coral reefs, oyster reefs, mangrove forests and salt-marshes) also contributes to remove nutrients, increase sequestration of organic matter in benthic sediment, and increase rates of denitrification<ref>Malone, T.C. and Newton, A. 2020. The Globalization of Cultural Eutrophication in the Coastal Ocean: Causes and Consequences. Front. Mar. Sci. 7:670</ref>.</ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div> </div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Certain </ins>measures may contribute to mitigate the impact of HABs (for a more detailed and complete overview see e.g. Berdalet et al., 2016<ref name=Ber16/> and Wells et al., 2020<ref> Wells, M.L., Karlson, B., Wulff, A., Kudela, R., Trick, C., Asnaghi, V., Berdalet, E., Cochlan, W.,. Davidson, K., De Rijcke, M., Dutkiewicz, S., Hallegraeff, G., Flynn, K.J., Legrand, C., Paerl, H., Slke, J., Suikkanen, S., Thompson, P. and Trainer, V.L. 2020. Future HAB science: Directions and challenges in a changing climate. Harmful Algae 91, 101632</ref>):</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>*Development and implementation of new efficient techniques for monitoring HABs and biotoxins and for monitoring marine conditions that are favorable for the development of HABs, in order to improve early warning;</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>*Development and implementation of new efficient techniques for monitoring HABs and biotoxins and for monitoring marine conditions that are favorable for the development of HABs, in order to improve early warning;</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>*Management measures for <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">fish and shellfish farms </del>to reduce <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">the release of nutrient-rich waste</del>, for example by <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">installing water treatment </del>and <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">flushing systems;</del></div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>*Management measures for <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">aquaculture </ins>to reduce <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">HAB development</ins>, for example by <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">timing the harvest, by enhanced flushing </ins>and <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">aeration or by relocation </ins>to offshore areas where excess N concentrations are less likely to build up;</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">*Relocation of aquaculture farms </del>to offshore areas where excess N concentrations are less likely to build up;</div></td><td colspan="2"> </td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>*Furthering understanding of fundamental aspects of HAB species in terms of toxin production, life cycles and interactions with bacteria in order to develop better targeted measures.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>*Furthering understanding of fundamental aspects of HAB species in terms of toxin production, life cycles and interactions with bacteria in order to develop better targeted measures.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
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</table>Dronkers Jhttps://www.marinespecies.org/i/index.php?title=Harmful_algal_bloom&diff=78339&oldid=prevDronkers J at 20:15, 9 November 20202020-11-09T20:15:49Z<p></p>
<a href="https://www.marinespecies.org/i/index.php?title=Harmful_algal_bloom&diff=78339&oldid=77906">Show changes</a>Dronkers Jhttps://www.marinespecies.org/i/index.php?title=Harmful_algal_bloom&diff=77906&oldid=prevDronkers J at 13:37, 6 September 20202020-09-06T13:37:29Z<p></p>
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<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #222; text-align: center;">Revision as of 13:37, 6 September 2020</td>
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<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==Related articles==</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==Related articles==</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>* [[Real-time algae monitoring]]</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>* [[Real-time algae monitoring]]</div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">* [[ALGADEC - Detection of toxic algae with a semi-automated nucleic acid biosensor]]</ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>* [[Eutrophication in coastal environments]]</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>* [[Eutrophication in coastal environments]]</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>* [[Algal bloom]]</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>* [[Algal bloom]]</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>* [[Algal bloom dynamics]]</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>* [[Algal bloom dynamics]]</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>* [[The Ocean as an economic area - a competitive Europe]]</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>* [[The Ocean as an economic area - a competitive Europe]]</div></td></tr>
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</table>Dronkers Jhttps://www.marinespecies.org/i/index.php?title=Harmful_algal_bloom&diff=77481&oldid=prevDronkers J at 09:00, 1 August 20202020-08-01T09:00:30Z<p></p>
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<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #222; text-align: center;">Revision as of 09:00, 1 August 2020</td>
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<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>{{Definition|title= Harmful Algal Bloom (HAB)</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>{{Definition|title= Harmful Algal Bloom (HAB)</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>|definition= Harmful algal blooms or HABs are [[algal bloom]]s composed of phytoplankton known to naturally produce biotoxins, they can occur when certain types of microscopic algae grow quickly in water, forming visible patches that may harm the health of the environment, plants, or animals. HABs can deplete the oxygen and block the sunlight that other organisms need to live, and some HAB-causing algae release toxins that are dangerous to animals and humans. HAB can occur in marine, estuarine, and fresh waters<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">.<ref>CoPraNet glossary [http://www.coastalpractice.net/glossary/index.htm]</ref></del>.  </div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>|definition= Harmful algal blooms or HABs are [[algal bloom]]s composed of phytoplankton known to naturally produce biotoxins, they can occur when certain types of microscopic algae grow quickly in water, forming visible patches that may harm the health of the environment, plants, or animals. HABs can deplete the oxygen and block the sunlight that other organisms need to live, and some HAB-causing algae release toxins that are dangerous to animals and humans. HAB can occur in marine, estuarine, and fresh waters.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>}}</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>}}</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
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<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The frequency and intensity of recorded harmful algal blooms has increased worldwide over the past decades. The reason for this is often assumed to be [[eutrophication]]. However, many other explanations are possible, for example increased transport of algae with ship ballast water or increased monitoring efforts. For management purposes it is important to understand which are the main factors controlling the risk of harmful algal blooms. For a long time, a link was made between high nutrient concentrations and harmful algal blooms. More recently, researchers point out the importance of interacting biological and physical processes, including effects of wind, currents and water temperature.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The frequency and intensity of recorded harmful algal blooms has increased worldwide over the past decades. The reason for this is often assumed to be [[eutrophication]]. However, many other explanations are possible, for example increased transport of algae with ship ballast water or increased monitoring efforts. For management purposes it is important to understand which are the main factors controlling the risk of harmful algal blooms. For a long time, a link was made between high nutrient concentrations and harmful algal blooms. More recently, researchers point out the importance of interacting biological and physical processes, including effects of wind, currents and water temperature.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">See also</del>==</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Related articles</ins>==</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>* [[Real-time algae monitoring]]</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>* [[Real-time algae monitoring]]</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>* [[Eutrophication in coastal environments]]</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>* [[Eutrophication in coastal environments]]</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>* [[Algal bloom]]</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>* [[Algal bloom]]</div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">* [[Algal bloom dynamics]]</ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>* [[The Ocean as an economic area - a competitive Europe]]</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>* [[The Ocean as an economic area - a competitive Europe]]</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"></del></div></td><td colspan="2"> </td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">==References==</del></div></td><td colspan="2"> </td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"><references/></del></div></td><td colspan="2"> </td></tr>
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</table>Dronkers J