https://www.marinespecies.org/i/index.php?title=Overexploitation&feed=atom&action=history
Overexploitation - Revision history
2024-03-28T17:04:02Z
Revision history for this page on the wiki
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https://www.marinespecies.org/i/index.php?title=Overexploitation&diff=79684&oldid=prev
Dronkers J at 11:06, 6 March 2022
2022-03-06T11:06:05Z
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<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #222; text-align: center;">Revision as of 11:06, 6 March 2022</td>
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<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[image:Tuna4.JPG|thumb|right|Fig. 3. Tuna fisheries represent a typical case were the growth overfishing of stocks was generated by technological progress. Photo © NOAA]]</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[image:Tuna4.JPG|thumb|right|Fig. 3. Tuna fisheries represent a typical case were the growth overfishing of stocks was generated by technological progress. Photo © NOAA]]</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>When recruitment of target species is relatively high, the average size of individuals is affected because larger individuals tend to be harvested and populations display signs of '''growth overfishing'''. When adult populations are heavily exploited the number and size of the adult population (spawning biomass) is reduced to a point that it has not the reproductive capacity to replenish itself, leading to '''recruitment overfishing'''.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>When <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[</ins>recruitment<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]] </ins>of target species is relatively high, the average size of individuals is affected because larger individuals tend to be harvested and populations display signs of '''growth overfishing'''. When adult populations are heavily exploited the number and size of the adult population (spawning biomass) is reduced to a point that it has not the reproductive capacity to replenish itself, leading to '''recruitment overfishing'''.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Direct effects of fishing also include physical disturbance by fishing gear that can cause scraping, scouring and resuspension of the substratum.  The effects vary according to the gears used and the habitats fished <ref>Jennings, S. and Kaiser, M. 1998. The effects of fishing on marine ecosystems. Adv. Mar. Biol. 34: 201-352</ref>.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Direct effects of fishing also include physical disturbance by fishing gear that can cause scraping, scouring and resuspension of the substratum.  The effects vary according to the gears used and the habitats fished <ref>Jennings, S. and Kaiser, M. 1998. The effects of fishing on marine ecosystems. Adv. Mar. Biol. 34: 201-352</ref>.</div></td></tr>
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Dronkers J
https://www.marinespecies.org/i/index.php?title=Overexploitation&diff=79663&oldid=prev
Dronkers J at 11:02, 4 March 2022
2022-03-04T11:02:17Z
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<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #222; text-align: center;">Revision as of 11:02, 4 March 2022</td>
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<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"></ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">{{ Definition| title = Overexploitation</ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">| definition = In ecology: The use or extraction of a resource to the point of exhaustion or extinction.<br></ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">In fishery: The rate of exploitation where the resource stock is drawn below the size that, on average, would support the long-term maximum sustainable yield (MSY) of the fishery.</ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">}}</ins></div></td></tr>
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<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Overexploitation or overfishing is the removal of marine living resources to levels that are too low for sustaining viable populations. Ultimately, overexploitation can lead to resource depletion and put a number of threatened and endangered species at risk of extinction. See also the article [[Species extinction]].</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Overexploitation or overfishing is the removal of marine living resources to levels that are too low for sustaining viable populations. Ultimately, overexploitation can lead to resource depletion and put a number of threatened and endangered species at risk of extinction. See also the article [[Species extinction]].</div></td></tr>
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Dronkers J
https://www.marinespecies.org/i/index.php?title=Overexploitation&diff=79139&oldid=prev
Dronkers J at 10:21, 30 July 2021
2021-07-30T10:21:30Z
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<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #222; text-align: center;">Revision as of 10:21, 30 July 2021</td>
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<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>When recruitment of target species is relatively high, the average size of individuals is affected because larger individuals tend to be harvested and populations display signs of '''growth overfishing'''. When adult populations are heavily exploited the number and size of the adult population (spawning biomass) is reduced to a point that it has not the reproductive capacity to replenish itself, leading to '''recruitment overfishing'''.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>When recruitment of target species is relatively high, the average size of individuals is affected because larger individuals tend to be harvested and populations display signs of '''growth overfishing'''. When adult populations are heavily exploited the number and size of the adult population (spawning biomass) is reduced to a point that it has not the reproductive capacity to replenish itself, leading to '''recruitment overfishing'''.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Direct effects of fishing also include physical disturbance by fishing gear <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">than </del>can cause scraping, scouring and resuspension of the substratum.  The effects vary according to the gears used and the habitats fished <ref>Jennings, S. and Kaiser, M. 1998. The effects of fishing on marine ecosystems. Adv. Mar. Biol. 34: 201-352</ref>.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Direct effects of fishing also include physical disturbance by fishing gear <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">that </ins>can cause scraping, scouring and resuspension of the substratum.  The effects vary according to the gears used and the habitats fished <ref>Jennings, S. and Kaiser, M. 1998. The effects of fishing on marine ecosystems. Adv. Mar. Biol. 34: 201-352</ref>.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Trawling for demersal species also affects the habitat of species other than target species. It has been estimated that all of the sea bed of the North Sea is trawled over at least twice per year and the gear (beam trawling) is getting heavier over time <ref>Sydow, J.S. 1990. Cruise report experiments on the interaction fishing gear (beamtrawl)-benthos with R.V. Mitra. BEON Rapport 8, 1-57. </ref>. Trawls have destroyed long-lived species of molluscs and echinoderms in the North Sea. Since these species play important functional roles in biogeochemical cycling, ecosystem consequences are far-reaching.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Trawling for demersal species also affects the habitat of species other than target species. It has been estimated that all of the sea bed of the North Sea is trawled over at least twice per year and the gear (beam trawling) is getting heavier over time <ref>Sydow, J.S. 1990. Cruise report experiments on the interaction fishing gear (beamtrawl)-benthos with R.V. Mitra. BEON Rapport 8, 1-57. </ref>. Trawls have destroyed long-lived species of molluscs and echinoderms in the North Sea. Since these species play important functional roles in biogeochemical cycling, ecosystem consequences are far-reaching.</div></td></tr>
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<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[image:Turtle_ghost_fished.jpg |thumb|left|Fig. 4. Indirect effects of fishhing include "ghost fishing" from fishing nets left or lost in the ocean by fishermen. Photo © NOAA]]</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[image:Turtle_ghost_fished.jpg |thumb|left|Fig. 4. Indirect effects of fishhing include "ghost fishing" from fishing nets left or lost in the ocean by fishermen. Photo © NOAA]]</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>'''Ghost fishing''' is caused by fishing gear that has been abandoned or lost in the ocean by fishermen. Richardson et al. (2019<ref>Richardson, K., Hardesty, B.D. and Wilcox, C. 2019. Estimates of fishing gear loss rates at a global scale: A literature review and meta‐analysis, Fish and Fisheries 20(6): 1218-1231</ref>) estimate that 5.7% of all fishing nets, 8.6% of all traps, and 29% of all lines are lost around the world each year. <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">These nets</del>, <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">often nearly invisible in the dim light</del>, <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">can be left tangled on a rocky reef or drifting in the open sea</del>. <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">They can entangle fish</del>, <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">dolphins</del>, <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">sea turtles</del>, <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">sharks, dugongs, crocodiles, seabirds, crabs</del>, and <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">other creatures</del>, <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">including the occasional human diver</del>. <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Acting as designed, the nets restrict movement, causing starvation, laceration </del>and <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">infection</del>, <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">and — in those that need to return to the surface to breathe — suffocation</del>.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>'''Ghost fishing''' is caused by fishing gear that has been abandoned or lost in the ocean by fishermen<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">. These nets, often nearly invisible in the dim light, can be left tangled on a rocky reef or drifting in the open sea. They can entangle fish, dolphins, sea turtles, sharks, dugongs, crocodiles, seabirds, crabs, and other creatures, including the occasional human diver. Acting as designed, the nets restrict movement, causing starvation, laceration and infection, and — in those that need to return to the surface to breathe — suffocation</ins>. Richardson et al. (2019<ref>Richardson, K., Hardesty, B.D. and Wilcox, C. 2019. Estimates of fishing gear loss rates at a global scale: A literature review and meta‐analysis, Fish and Fisheries 20(6): 1218-1231</ref>) estimate that 5.7% of all fishing nets, 8.6% of all traps, and 29% of all lines are lost around the world each year. <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">However</ins>, <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">these figures are based on very incomplete information and should therefore be used with great caution<ref> Richardson</ins>, <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">K</ins>., <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Wilcox</ins>, <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">C.</ins>, <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Vince</ins>, <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">J. </ins>and <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Hardesty</ins>, <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">B.D. 2021</ins>. <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Challenges </ins>and <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">misperceptions around global fishing gear loss estimates. Marine Policy 129</ins>, <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">104522</ref></ins>.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>'''Trophic cascading effects''' occur when removal of top-level predators alters prey-predator relationships at other levels of the foodweb, with consequences throughout the ecosystem <ref>Pauly, D., Christenen, V., Dalsgaard, J., Froese, R. and Torres, F. Jr. 1998. Fishing Down Marine Food Webs. Science 279: 860-863</ref>. On many temperate reefs shifts from macroalgae-dominated habitats to habitats grazed by sea urchins, termed ‘urchin barrens’, have been linked to the over-harvesting of top predators <ref>Shears, N.T. and Babcock, R.C. 2003. Continuing trophic cascade effects after 25 years of no-take marine reserve protection. Marine Ecology Progress Series 246: 1-16</ref><ref>Sala, E., Boudouresque, C.F. and Harmelin-Vivien, M. 1998. Fishing, trophic cascades, and the structure of algal assemblages: evaluation of an old but untested paradigm. Oikos 82: 425–439</ref>. See also the articles [[Trophic cascade]] and [[Ecological thresholds and regime shifts]].</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>'''Trophic cascading effects''' occur when removal of top-level predators alters prey-predator relationships at other levels of the foodweb, with consequences throughout the ecosystem <ref>Pauly, D., Christenen, V., Dalsgaard, J., Froese, R. and Torres, F. Jr. 1998. Fishing Down Marine Food Webs. Science 279: 860-863</ref>. On many temperate reefs shifts from macroalgae-dominated habitats to habitats grazed by sea urchins, termed ‘urchin barrens’, have been linked to the over-harvesting of top predators <ref>Shears, N.T. and Babcock, R.C. 2003. Continuing trophic cascade effects after 25 years of no-take marine reserve protection. Marine Ecology Progress Series 246: 1-16</ref><ref>Sala, E., Boudouresque, C.F. and Harmelin-Vivien, M. 1998. Fishing, trophic cascades, and the structure of algal assemblages: evaluation of an old but untested paradigm. Oikos 82: 425–439</ref>. See also the articles [[Trophic cascade]] and [[Ecological thresholds and regime shifts]].</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>'''<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Food </del>web-competition''' is discussed in the article [[Effects of fisheries on European marine biodiversity]].</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">The issue of </ins>'''<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">food </ins>web-competition''' is discussed in the article [[Effects of fisheries on European marine biodiversity]].</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
</table>
Dronkers J
https://www.marinespecies.org/i/index.php?title=Overexploitation&diff=78527&oldid=prev
Dronkers J at 21:17, 27 December 2020
2020-12-27T21:17:56Z
<p></p>
<table class="diff diff-contentalign-left" data-mw="interface">
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<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #222; text-align: center;">← Older revision</td>
<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #222; text-align: center;">Revision as of 21:17, 27 December 2020</td>
</tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno" id="mw-diff-left-l84" >Line 84:</td>
<td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 84:</td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>|name=Job Dronkers|AuthorID=120|</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>|name=Job Dronkers|AuthorID=120|</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>}}</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>}}</div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"></ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">[[Category:Coastal and marine ecosystems]]  </ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">[[Category:Coastal and marine fisheries]]</ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">[[Category:Marine Biodiversity]]</ins></div></td></tr>
</table>
Dronkers J
https://www.marinespecies.org/i/index.php?title=Overexploitation&diff=78517&oldid=prev
Dronkers J at 14:54, 27 December 2020
2020-12-27T14:54:56Z
<p></p>
<table class="diff diff-contentalign-left" data-mw="interface">
<col class="diff-marker" />
<col class="diff-content" />
<col class="diff-marker" />
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<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #222; text-align: center;">← Older revision</td>
<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #222; text-align: center;">Revision as of 14:54, 27 December 2020</td>
</tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno" id="mw-diff-left-l4" >Line 4:</td>
<td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 4:</td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>A greater variety of species at a higher trophic level is exploited in the sea than on land: humans exploit over 400 species as food resources from the marine environment; whereas on land only tens of species are harvested for commercial use. Exploitation of marine biodiversity is also far less managed than on land and amounts to the hunter-gatherers stage that humans abandoned on land over 10,000 years ago, yet exploitation technology is becoming so advanced that many marine species are in danger of extinction. Insufficient consideration has been given to the unexpected and unpredictable long-term effects that such primitive food-gathering practices engender.  </div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>A greater variety of species at a higher trophic level is exploited in the sea than on land: humans exploit over 400 species as food resources from the marine environment; whereas on land only tens of species are harvested for commercial use. Exploitation of marine biodiversity is also far less managed than on land and amounts to the hunter-gatherers stage that humans abandoned on land over 10,000 years ago, yet exploitation technology is becoming so advanced that many marine species are in danger of extinction. Insufficient consideration has been given to the unexpected and unpredictable long-term effects that such primitive food-gathering practices engender.  </div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[image:fish overexploitation.jpg |thumb|right|Fig. 1. Overexploitation of fish stocks is a major threat to marine biodiversity in Europe. Photo © OAR NURP,NOAA]]</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[image:fish overexploitation.jpg |thumb<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|200px</ins>|right|Fig. 1. Overexploitation of fish stocks is a major threat to marine biodiversity in Europe. Photo © OAR NURP,NOAA]]</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>== The problem ==</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>== The problem ==</div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno" id="mw-diff-left-l10" >Line 10:</td>
<td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 10:</td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The exponential growth of human population experienced during the last decades has led to an overexploitation of marine living resources to meet the growing demand for food. Worldwide, fishing fleets are two to three times as large as needed to take present day catches of fish and other marine species and as what our oceans can sustainably support<ref>Kirkley, J. E. and Squire, D. 1999. Measuring Capacity and Capacity Utilization in Fisheries. In: Gréboval, D (Ed). Managing Fishing Capacity: Selected Papers on Underlying Concepts and Issues. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No 386. pp. 75-200. Rome, FAO</ref>. The use of modern techniques to facilitate harvesting, transport and storage has accelerated this trend. Global fishing capacity and effort increased rapidly from the late 1970s through to around 2010 before stabilizing. At that time, the Asian fleet was more than an order of magnitude larger than any other region in both capacity and effort, and continued to increase. Most other regions stabilized, and there have been considerable declines in Europe and, to a lesser extent, in North America<ref>Bell, J., Watson, W. and Ye, Y. 2017. Global fishing capacity and fishing effort from 1950 to 2012. Fish and Fisheries 18: 489–505</ref>.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The exponential growth of human population experienced during the last decades has led to an overexploitation of marine living resources to meet the growing demand for food. Worldwide, fishing fleets are two to three times as large as needed to take present day catches of fish and other marine species and as what our oceans can sustainably support<ref>Kirkley, J. E. and Squire, D. 1999. Measuring Capacity and Capacity Utilization in Fisheries. In: Gréboval, D (Ed). Managing Fishing Capacity: Selected Papers on Underlying Concepts and Issues. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No 386. pp. 75-200. Rome, FAO</ref>. The use of modern techniques to facilitate harvesting, transport and storage has accelerated this trend. Global fishing capacity and effort increased rapidly from the late 1970s through to around 2010 before stabilizing. At that time, the Asian fleet was more than an order of magnitude larger than any other region in both capacity and effort, and continued to increase. Most other regions stabilized, and there have been considerable declines in Europe and, to a lesser extent, in North America<ref>Bell, J., Watson, W. and Ye, Y. 2017. Global fishing capacity and fishing effort from 1950 to 2012. Fish and Fisheries 18: 489–505</ref>.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Although in 2017 almost 80 percent of current marine fish landings came from biologically sustainable stocks, the percentage of stocks fished at biologically unsustainable levels increased from 10 percent in 1974 to 34.2 percent in 2017. The proportion of fish stocks that are within biologically sustainable levels decreased from 90 percent in 1974 to 65.8 percent in 2017, with 59.6 percent classified as being maximally sustainably fished stocks and 6.2 percent underfished stocks<ref<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">></del>FAO<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">. 2020. The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2020. Sustainability in action. Rome. https:</del>/<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">/doi</del>.<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">org/10.4060/ca9229en</ref></del>.  An inventory by Worm et al. (2016<ref name=W6>Worm, B., Barbier, E.B., Beaumont, J., Duffy, E., Folke, C., Halpern, B.S., Jackson , J.B.C., Lotze, H.K., Micheli, F., Palumbi, S.R., Sala, E., Selkoe, K.A., Stachowicz, J.J. and Watson, R. 2006. Impacts of biodiversity loss on ocean ecosystem services. Science 314:787–790. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1132294</ref>) showed that 29% of fish and seafood species have collapsed (i.e their catch has declined by 90%) or are projected to collapse before 2048, unless immediate action is taken. Myers and Worm (2003<ref>Myers, R.A. and Worm, B. 2003. Rapid worldwide depletion of predatory fish communities. Nature 423: 280-283</ref>) estimated that the worldwide stock of large predatory fish biomass is only about 10% of pre-industrial levels.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[File:TrendOverfishedFAO.jpg|thumb|left|400px|Fig. 2. Global trend in overfishing. Source: FAO (2020<ref name=FAO>FAO. 2020. The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2020. Sustainability in action. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/ca9229en</ref>)]]</ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div> </div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Although in 2017 almost 80 percent of current marine fish landings came from biologically sustainable stocks, the percentage of stocks fished at biologically unsustainable levels increased from 10 percent in 1974 to 34.2 percent in 2017. The proportion of fish stocks that are within biologically sustainable levels decreased from 90 percent in 1974 to 65.8 percent in 2017, with 59.6 percent classified as being maximally sustainably fished stocks and 6.2 percent underfished stocks<ref <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">name=</ins>FAO/<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">>, see Fig</ins>. <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">2</ins>.  An inventory by Worm et al. (2016<ref name=W6>Worm, B., Barbier, E.B., Beaumont, J., Duffy, E., Folke, C., Halpern, B.S., Jackson , J.B.C., Lotze, H.K., Micheli, F., Palumbi, S.R., Sala, E., Selkoe, K.A., Stachowicz, J.J. and Watson, R. 2006. Impacts of biodiversity loss on ocean ecosystem services. Science 314:787–790. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1132294</ref>) showed that 29% of fish and seafood species have collapsed (i.e their catch has declined by 90%) or are projected to collapse before 2048, unless immediate action is taken. Myers and Worm (2003<ref>Myers, R.A. and Worm, B. 2003. Rapid worldwide depletion of predatory fish communities. Nature 423: 280-283</ref>) estimated that the worldwide stock of large predatory fish biomass is only about 10% of pre-industrial levels.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Overexploitation does not only affect [[Open ocean habitat|open ocean]] or pelagic ecosystems, but also coastal and intertidal areas <ref>Thompson, R.C., Crowe, T.P. and  Hawkins, S.J. 2002. Rocky intertidal communities: past environmental changes, present status and predictions for the next 25 years. Environmental Conservation 29(2): 168–191</ref>. For example, intertidal limpets in Hawaii (''Cellana'' spp.), the Azores, Madeira and Canaries (''Patella'' spp.) have all shown declines, and in the case of the Azores, dramatic population crashes owing to collection by local people have been reported<ref>Hawkins, S.J., Corte-Real, H.B.S.M., Pannacciulli, F.G., Weber, L.C. and Bishop, J.D.D. 2000. Thoughts on the ecology and evolution of the intertidal biota of the Azores and other Atlantic Islands. Hydrobiologia 440: 3–17</ref></div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Overexploitation does not only affect [[Open ocean habitat|open ocean]] or pelagic ecosystems, but also coastal and intertidal areas <ref>Thompson, R.C., Crowe, T.P. and  Hawkins, S.J. 2002. Rocky intertidal communities: past environmental changes, present status and predictions for the next 25 years. Environmental Conservation 29(2): 168–191</ref>. For example, intertidal limpets in Hawaii (''Cellana'' spp.), the Azores, Madeira and Canaries (''Patella'' spp.) have all shown declines, and in the case of the Azores, dramatic population crashes owing to collection by local people have been reported<ref>Hawkins, S.J., Corte-Real, H.B.S.M., Pannacciulli, F.G., Weber, L.C. and Bishop, J.D.D. 2000. Thoughts on the ecology and evolution of the intertidal biota of the Azores and other Atlantic Islands. Hydrobiologia 440: 3–17</ref></div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno" id="mw-diff-left-l25" >Line 25:</td>
<td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 27:</td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>== Direct effects ==</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>== Direct effects ==</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[image:Tuna4.JPG|thumb|right|Fig. <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">2</del>. Tuna fisheries represent a typical case were the growth overfishing of stocks was generated by technological progress. Photo © NOAA]]</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[image:Tuna4.JPG|thumb|right|Fig. <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">3</ins>. Tuna fisheries represent a typical case were the growth overfishing of stocks was generated by technological progress. Photo © NOAA]]</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>When recruitment of target species is relatively high, the average size of individuals is affected because larger individuals tend to be harvested and populations display signs of '''growth overfishing'''. When adult populations are heavily exploited the number and size of the adult population (spawning biomass) is reduced to a point that it has not the reproductive capacity to replenish itself, leading to '''recruitment overfishing'''.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>When recruitment of target species is relatively high, the average size of individuals is affected because larger individuals tend to be harvested and populations display signs of '''growth overfishing'''. When adult populations are heavily exploited the number and size of the adult population (spawning biomass) is reduced to a point that it has not the reproductive capacity to replenish itself, leading to '''recruitment overfishing'''.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno" id="mw-diff-left-l38" >Line 38:</td>
<td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 40:</td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Fishing not only has direct effects on target populations but also results in indirect effects such as '''goast fishing''', '''trophic cascading effects''' and '''food web-competition'''.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Fishing not only has direct effects on target populations but also results in indirect effects such as '''goast fishing''', '''trophic cascading effects''' and '''food web-competition'''.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[image:Turtle_ghost_fished.jpg |thumb|left|Fig. <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">3</del>. Indirect effects of fishhing include "ghost fishing" from fishing nets left or lost in the ocean by fishermen. Photo © NOAA]]</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[image:Turtle_ghost_fished.jpg |thumb|left|Fig. <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">4</ins>. Indirect effects of fishhing include "ghost fishing" from fishing nets left or lost in the ocean by fishermen. Photo © NOAA]]</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>'''Ghost fishing''' is caused by fishing gear that has been abandoned or lost in the ocean by fishermen. Richardson et al. (2019<ref>Richardson, K., Hardesty, B.D. and Wilcox, C. 2019. Estimates of fishing gear loss rates at a global scale: A literature review and meta‐analysis, Fish and Fisheries 20(6): 1218-1231</ref>) estimate that 5.7% of all fishing nets, 8.6% of all traps, and 29% of all lines are lost around the world each year. These nets, often nearly invisible in the dim light, can be left tangled on a rocky reef or drifting in the open sea. They can entangle fish, dolphins, sea turtles, sharks, dugongs, crocodiles, seabirds, crabs, and other creatures, including the occasional human diver. Acting as designed, the nets restrict movement, causing starvation, laceration and infection, and — in those that need to return to the surface to breathe — suffocation.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>'''Ghost fishing''' is caused by fishing gear that has been abandoned or lost in the ocean by fishermen. Richardson et al. (2019<ref>Richardson, K., Hardesty, B.D. and Wilcox, C. 2019. Estimates of fishing gear loss rates at a global scale: A literature review and meta‐analysis, Fish and Fisheries 20(6): 1218-1231</ref>) estimate that 5.7% of all fishing nets, 8.6% of all traps, and 29% of all lines are lost around the world each year. These nets, often nearly invisible in the dim light, can be left tangled on a rocky reef or drifting in the open sea. They can entangle fish, dolphins, sea turtles, sharks, dugongs, crocodiles, seabirds, crabs, and other creatures, including the occasional human diver. Acting as designed, the nets restrict movement, causing starvation, laceration and infection, and — in those that need to return to the surface to breathe — suffocation.</div></td></tr>
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<td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 64:</td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==Related articles==</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==Related articles==</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>:[[Effects of fisheries on <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">European </del>marine biodiversity]]</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>:[[Effects of fisheries on marine biodiversity]]</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>:[[Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)]]</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>:[[Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)]]</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>:[[Species extinction]]</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>:[[Species extinction]]</div></td></tr>
</table>
Dronkers J
https://www.marinespecies.org/i/index.php?title=Overexploitation&diff=78481&oldid=prev
Dronkers J at 20:02, 26 December 2020
2020-12-26T20:02:38Z
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<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #222; text-align: center;">← Older revision</td>
<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #222; text-align: center;">Revision as of 20:02, 26 December 2020</td>
</tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno" id="mw-diff-left-l10" >Line 10:</td>
<td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 10:</td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The exponential growth of human population experienced during the last decades has led to an overexploitation of marine living resources to meet the growing demand for food. Worldwide, fishing fleets are two to three times as large as needed to take present day catches of fish and other marine species and as what our oceans can sustainably support<ref>Kirkley, J. E. and Squire, D. 1999. Measuring Capacity and Capacity Utilization in Fisheries. In: Gréboval, D (Ed). Managing Fishing Capacity: Selected Papers on Underlying Concepts and Issues. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No 386. pp. 75-200. Rome, FAO</ref>. The use of modern techniques to facilitate harvesting, transport and storage has accelerated this trend. Global fishing capacity and effort increased rapidly from the late 1970s through to around 2010 before stabilizing. At that time, the Asian fleet was more than an order of magnitude larger than any other region in both capacity and effort, and continued to increase. Most other regions stabilized, and there have been considerable declines in Europe and, to a lesser extent, in North America<ref>Bell, J., Watson, W. and Ye, Y. 2017. Global fishing capacity and fishing effort from 1950 to 2012. Fish and Fisheries 18: 489–505</ref>.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The exponential growth of human population experienced during the last decades has led to an overexploitation of marine living resources to meet the growing demand for food. Worldwide, fishing fleets are two to three times as large as needed to take present day catches of fish and other marine species and as what our oceans can sustainably support<ref>Kirkley, J. E. and Squire, D. 1999. Measuring Capacity and Capacity Utilization in Fisheries. In: Gréboval, D (Ed). Managing Fishing Capacity: Selected Papers on Underlying Concepts and Issues. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No 386. pp. 75-200. Rome, FAO</ref>. The use of modern techniques to facilitate harvesting, transport and storage has accelerated this trend. Global fishing capacity and effort increased rapidly from the late 1970s through to around 2010 before stabilizing. At that time, the Asian fleet was more than an order of magnitude larger than any other region in both capacity and effort, and continued to increase. Most other regions stabilized, and there have been considerable declines in Europe and, to a lesser extent, in North America<ref>Bell, J., Watson, W. and Ye, Y. 2017. Global fishing capacity and fishing effort from 1950 to 2012. Fish and Fisheries 18: 489–505</ref>.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Although in 2017 almost 80 percent of current marine fish landings came from biologically sustainable stocks, the percentage of stocks fished at biologically unsustainable levels increased from 10 percent in 1974 to 34.2 percent in 2017. The proportion of fish stocks that are within biologically sustainable levels decreased from 90 percent in 1974 to 65.8 percent in 2017, with 59.6 percent classified as being maximally sustainably fished stocks and 6.2 percent underfished stocks<ref>FAO. 2020. The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2020. Sustainability in action. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/ca9229en</ref>.  An inventory by Worm et al. (2016<ref name=W6>Worm, B., Barbier, E.B., Beaumont, J., Duffy, E., Folke, C., Halpern, B.S., Jackson , J.B.C., Lotze, H.K., Micheli, F., Palumbi, S.R., Sala, E., Selkoe, K.A., Stachowicz, J.J. and Watson, R. 2006. Impacts of biodiversity loss on ocean ecosystem services. Science 314:787–790. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1132294</ref>) showed that 29% of fish and seafood species have collapsed (i.e their catch has declined by 90%) or are projected to collapse <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">within by </del>2048, unless immediate action is taken. Myers and Worm (2003<ref>Myers, R.A. and Worm, B. 2003. Rapid worldwide depletion of predatory fish communities. Nature 423: 280-283</ref>) estimated that the worldwide stock of large predatory fish biomass is only about 10% of pre-industrial levels.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Although in 2017 almost 80 percent of current marine fish landings came from biologically sustainable stocks, the percentage of stocks fished at biologically unsustainable levels increased from 10 percent in 1974 to 34.2 percent in 2017. The proportion of fish stocks that are within biologically sustainable levels decreased from 90 percent in 1974 to 65.8 percent in 2017, with 59.6 percent classified as being maximally sustainably fished stocks and 6.2 percent underfished stocks<ref>FAO. 2020. The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2020. Sustainability in action. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/ca9229en</ref>.  An inventory by Worm et al. (2016<ref name=W6>Worm, B., Barbier, E.B., Beaumont, J., Duffy, E., Folke, C., Halpern, B.S., Jackson , J.B.C., Lotze, H.K., Micheli, F., Palumbi, S.R., Sala, E., Selkoe, K.A., Stachowicz, J.J. and Watson, R. 2006. Impacts of biodiversity loss on ocean ecosystem services. Science 314:787–790. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1132294</ref>) showed that 29% of fish and seafood species have collapsed (i.e their catch has declined by 90%) or are projected to collapse <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">before </ins>2048, unless immediate action is taken. Myers and Worm (2003<ref>Myers, R.A. and Worm, B. 2003. Rapid worldwide depletion of predatory fish communities. Nature 423: 280-283</ref>) estimated that the worldwide stock of large predatory fish biomass is only about 10% of pre-industrial levels.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Overexploitation does not only affect [[Open ocean habitat|open ocean]] or pelagic ecosystems, but also coastal and intertidal areas <ref>Thompson, R.C., Crowe, T.P<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">, </del>Hawkins, S.J. <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">(</del>2002<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">) </del>Rocky intertidal communities: past environmental changes, present status and predictions for the next 25 years. Environmental Conservation 29(2): 168–191</ref>. For example, intertidal limpets in Hawaii (''Cellana'' spp.), the Azores, Madeira and Canaries (''Patella'' spp.) have all shown declines, and in the case of the Azores, dramatic population crashes owing to <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">food gathering </del><ref>Hawkins, S.J., Corte-Real, H.B.S.M., Pannacciulli, F.G., Weber, L.C. <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">& </del>Bishop, J.D.D. <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">(</del>2000<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">) </del>Thoughts on the ecology and evolution of the intertidal biota of the Azores and other Atlantic Islands. Hydrobiologia 440: 3–17</ref></div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Overexploitation does not only affect [[Open ocean habitat|open ocean]] or pelagic ecosystems, but also coastal and intertidal areas <ref>Thompson, R.C., Crowe, T.P<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">. and  </ins>Hawkins, S.J. 2002<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">. </ins>Rocky intertidal communities: past environmental changes, present status and predictions for the next 25 years. Environmental Conservation 29(2): 168–191</ref>. For example, intertidal limpets in Hawaii (''Cellana'' spp.), the Azores, Madeira and Canaries (''Patella'' spp.) have all shown declines, and in the case of the Azores, dramatic population crashes owing to <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">collection by local people have been reported</ins><ref>Hawkins, S.J., Corte-Real, H.B.S.M., Pannacciulli, F.G., Weber, L.C. <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">and </ins>Bishop, J.D.D. 2000<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">. </ins>Thoughts on the ecology and evolution of the intertidal biota of the Azores and other Atlantic Islands. Hydrobiologia 440: 3–17</ref></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>== Overexploitation effects ==</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>== Overexploitation effects ==</div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno" id="mw-diff-left-l28" >Line 28:</td>
<td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 28:</td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>When recruitment of target species is relatively high, the average size of individuals is affected because larger individuals tend to be harvested and populations display signs of '''growth overfishing'''. When adult populations are heavily exploited the number and size of the adult population (spawning biomass) is reduced to a point that it has not the reproductive capacity to replenish itself, leading to '''recruitment overfishing'''.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>When recruitment of target species is relatively high, the average size of individuals is affected because larger individuals tend to be harvested and populations display signs of '''growth overfishing'''. When adult populations are heavily exploited the number and size of the adult population (spawning biomass) is reduced to a point that it has not the reproductive capacity to replenish itself, leading to '''recruitment overfishing'''.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Direct effects of fishing also include physical disturbance by fishing gear than can cause scraping, scouring and resuspension of the substratum.  The effects vary according to the gears used and the habitats fished <ref>Jennings, S. <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">& </del>Kaiser, M. <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">(</del>1998<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">)</del>. The effects of fishing on marine ecosystems. <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">''</del>Adv. Mar. Biol.<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">'' </del>34: 201-352<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">.</ref>.</del></div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Direct effects of fishing also include physical disturbance by fishing gear than can cause scraping, scouring and resuspension of the substratum.  The effects vary according to the gears used and the habitats fished <ref>Jennings, S. <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">and </ins>Kaiser, M. 1998. The effects of fishing on marine ecosystems. Adv. Mar. Biol. 34: 201-352</ref>.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div> </div></td><td colspan="2"> </td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Trawling for demersal species affects also the habitat of species other than target species. It has been estimated that all of the sea bed of the North Sea is trawled over at least twice per year and the gear is getting heavier over time <ref>Sydow, J.S. (1990) Cruise report experiments on the interaction fishing gear (beamtrawl)-benthos with R.V. Mitra. BEON Rapport 8, 1-57. </del></ref>. <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Trawls have destroyed long-lived species of molluscs and echinoderms in the North Sea. Since these species play important functional roles in biogeochemical cycling, ecosystem consequences are far-reaching.</del></div></td><td colspan="2"> </td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div> </div></td><td colspan="2"> </td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">Trawling for demersal species also affects the habitat of species other than target species. It has been estimated that all of the sea bed of the North Sea is trawled over at least twice per year and the gear (beam trawling) is getting heavier over time <ref>Sydow, J.S. 1990. Cruise report experiments on the interaction fishing gear (beamtrawl)-benthos with R.V. Mitra. BEON Rapport 8, 1-57. </ref>. Trawls have destroyed long-lived species of molluscs and echinoderms in the North Sea. Since these species play important functional roles in biogeochemical cycling, ecosystem consequences are far-reaching.</ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">For this reason, the Dutch beam trawl fishery has switched to pulse fishing, which requires less heavy beam trawls. Although positive advice has been given on this technique by the International Council for the Exploitation of the Sea <ref> ICES. 2020. Special Request Advice Large North Sea ecoregion regarding the effects of pulse trawling on the ecosystem and environment of sole fishing (Solea solea) in the North Sea </ref>), it is disputed whether this method causes less environmental damage. The European Commission has therefore pronounced a ban on this fishing technique.</ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>== Indirect effect ==</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>== Indirect effect ==</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Fishing not only has direct effects on target populations but also results in indirect effects such as '''goast fishing''', '''<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[Throphic cascade|</del>trophic cascading effects<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]]</del>''' <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline"><ref>Pauly, D.; Christenen, V.; Dalsgaard, J.; Froese, R.; Torres, F. Jr. (1998). Fishing Down Marine Food Webs. Science 279: 860-863</ref> </del>and '''food web-competition'''.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Fishing not only has direct effects on target populations but also results in indirect effects such as '''goast fishing''', '''trophic cascading effects''' and '''food web-competition'''.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[image:Turtle_ghost_fished.jpg |thumb|left|Fig. 3. Indirect effects of fishhing include "ghost fishing" from fishing nets left or lost in the ocean by fishermen. Photo © NOAA]]</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[image:Turtle_ghost_fished.jpg |thumb|left|Fig. 3. Indirect effects of fishhing include "ghost fishing" from fishing nets left or lost in the ocean by fishermen. Photo © NOAA]]</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>'''Ghost fishing''' is caused by fishing gear that has been <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">left </del>or lost in the ocean by fishermen. Richardson et al. (2019<ref>Richardson, K., Hardesty, B.D. and Wilcox, C. 2019. Estimates of fishing gear loss rates at a global scale: A literature review and meta‐analysis, Fish and Fisheries 20(6): 1218-1231</ref>) estimate that 5.7% of all fishing nets, 8.6% of all traps, and 29% of all lines are lost around the world each year. These nets, often nearly invisible in the dim light, can be left tangled on a rocky reef or drifting in the open sea. They can entangle fish, dolphins, sea turtles, sharks, dugongs, crocodiles, seabirds, crabs, and other creatures, including the occasional human diver. Acting as designed, the nets restrict movement, causing starvation, laceration and infection, and — in those that need to return to the surface to breathe — suffocation.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>'''Ghost fishing''' is caused by fishing gear that has been <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">abandoned </ins>or lost in the ocean by fishermen. Richardson et al. (2019<ref>Richardson, K., Hardesty, B.D. and Wilcox, C. 2019. Estimates of fishing gear loss rates at a global scale: A literature review and meta‐analysis, Fish and Fisheries 20(6): 1218-1231</ref>) estimate that 5.7% of all fishing nets, 8.6% of all traps, and 29% of all lines are lost around the world each year. These nets, often nearly invisible in the dim light, can be left tangled on a rocky reef or drifting in the open sea. They can entangle fish, dolphins, sea turtles, sharks, dugongs, crocodiles, seabirds, crabs, and other creatures, including the occasional human diver. Acting as designed, the nets restrict movement, causing starvation, laceration and infection, and — in those that need to return to the surface to breathe — suffocation.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>'''<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[Trophic cascade|</del>Trophic cascading effects<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]]</del>''' occur when removal of top-level predators alters prey-predator relationships at other levels of the foodweb, with consequences throughout the ecosystem <ref> <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Jennings</del>, <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">S</del>., <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Kaiser</del>, <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">M</del>.J. <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">(</del>1998<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">) The effects of fishing on marine ecosystems</del>. <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Advances in </del>Marine <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Biology 34</del>:<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">201–352</del></ref>. On many temperate reefs shifts from macroalgae-dominated habitats to habitats grazed by sea urchins, termed ‘urchin barrens’, have been linked to the over-harvesting of top predators <ref>Shears <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">NT</del>, Babcock <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">RC (</del>2003<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">) </del>Continuing trophic cascade effects after 25 years of no-take marine reserve protection. Marine Ecology Progress Series 246: 1-16</ref><ref>Sala, E., Boudouresque, C.F.<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">, </del>Harmelin-Vivien, M. <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">(</del>1998<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">) </del>Fishing, trophic cascades, and the structure of algal assemblages: evaluation of an old but untested paradigm. Oikos 82:425–439</ref>. See also the articles [[Trophic cascade]] and [[Ecological thresholds and regime shifts]].</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>'''Trophic cascading effects''' occur when removal of top-level predators alters prey-predator relationships at other levels of the foodweb, with consequences throughout the ecosystem <ref><ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Pauly</ins>, <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">D</ins>., <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Christenen</ins>, <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">V</ins>.<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">, Dalsgaard, </ins>J.<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">, Froese, R. and Torres, F. Jr. </ins>1998. <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Fishing Down </ins>Marine <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Food Webs. Science 279</ins>: <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">860-863</ins></ref>. On many temperate reefs shifts from macroalgae-dominated habitats to habitats grazed by sea urchins, termed ‘urchin barrens’, have been linked to the over-harvesting of top predators <ref>Shears, <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">N.T. and </ins>Babcock<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">, R.C. </ins>2003<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">. </ins>Continuing trophic cascade effects after 25 years of no-take marine reserve protection. Marine Ecology Progress Series 246: 1-16</ref><ref>Sala, E., Boudouresque, C.F. <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">and </ins>Harmelin-Vivien, M. 1998<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">. </ins>Fishing, trophic cascades, and the structure of algal assemblages: evaluation of an old but untested paradigm. Oikos 82: 425–439</ref>. See also the articles [[Trophic cascade]] and [[Ecological thresholds and regime shifts]].</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno" id="mw-diff-left-l51" >Line 51:</td>
<td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 50:</td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>== Conservation policies and practices ==</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>== Conservation policies and practices ==</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Conservation policies and practices for preserving marine biodiversity conservation are based on theoretical disciplines, such as population and community marine biology, that guide practical conservation strategies, such as <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">setting up marine reserves, </del>[[Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)]] <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">or by defining </del>and <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">imposing </del>fish quotas. Conservation efforts aim to ban or restrict human activities that are detrimental to the marine environment, through policies or legislations at international, European and/or regional level.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Conservation policies and practices for preserving marine biodiversity conservation are based on theoretical disciplines, such as population and community marine biology, that guide practical conservation strategies, such as <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">the designation of </ins>[[Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)]] and <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Marine Reserves and regulations regarding fishing gear and </ins>fish quotas. Conservation efforts aim to ban or restrict human activities that are detrimental to the marine environment, through policies or legislations at international, European and/or regional level.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Education of the general public about conservation issues is key in the process of conservation of the marine environment. There are many marine conservation organisations throughout the world <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">that focus on </del>funding conservation efforts, educating the public and stakeholders, and lobbying for conservation law and policy <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">(see below)</del>.  </div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Education of the general public about conservation issues is key in the process of conservation of the marine environment. There are many marine conservation organisations throughout the world <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">dedicated to </ins>funding conservation efforts, educating the public and stakeholders, and lobbying for conservation law and policy.  </div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>== Marine Reserves and Marine Protected Areas ==</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>== Marine Reserves and Marine Protected Areas ==</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Only a very small part of the earth oceans are protected, compared to 12% of the land surface – see the article [[Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)]]. <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Highly protected </del>Marine Reserves are areas of the sea where human disturbances are minimised, allowing to maintain biodiversity or to recover the biodiversity of a more natural state. In Europe there are few Marine Reserves, they are small and most of them are situated in the Mediterranean.  </div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Only a very small part of the earth<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">'s </ins>oceans are protected, compared to 12% of the land surface – see the article [[Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)]]. Marine Reserves are <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">highly protected </ins>areas of the sea where human disturbances are minimised, allowing to maintain biodiversity or to recover the biodiversity of a more natural state. In Europe there are few Marine Reserves, they are small and most of them are situated in the Mediterranean.  </div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The great majority of the Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in Europe only have some extra regulations or planning procedures, but they do not fully protect marine biodiversity. Inside Marine Reserves all extractive and potentially-disturbing human activities are prohibited. Marine Reserves are of crucial importance to science and education, essential for conservation, useful in resource management and necessary for reversing the effects of overexploitation. The benefits <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">of marine reserves </del>are illustrated in New Zealand where twenty <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">marine reserves </del>have been created over the last 25 years. For example, inside Marine Reserves the abundance of species of ecological and commercial importance, such as the snapper ''Pagurus auratus'' and the spiny lobster ''Jasus edwardsii'' are almost 9 and 4 times, respectively, more abundant inside reserves than in adjacent unprotected areas. Furthermore, the mean body size of these animals is significantly larger inside reserves than outside <ref> Babcock, R.C., Kelly, S., Shears, N.T., Walker, J.W.<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">, </del>Willis, T.J. <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">(</del>1999<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">)</del>. Changes in community structure in temperate marine reserves. Marine Ecology Progress Series 189: 125-134</ref>. To reduce the effect of overexploitation, it is necessary to create a coherent network of highly protected Marine Reserves that not only represent biodiversity hotspots, but also all marine habitats that are important for the reproduction and life cycle of endangered species <ref>Ballantine, W.J. and Langlois, T.J. <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">(</del>2007<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">) </del>Marine Reserves : The need for systems. Hydrobiologia 606<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">, </del>35-44<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">. </del></ref>.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The great majority of the Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in Europe only have some extra regulations or planning procedures, but they do not fully protect marine biodiversity. Inside Marine Reserves all extractive and potentially-disturbing human activities are prohibited. Marine Reserves are of crucial importance to science and education, essential for conservation, useful in resource management and necessary for reversing the effects of overexploitation. The benefits are illustrated in New Zealand<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">, </ins>where twenty <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Marine Reserves </ins>have been created over the last 25 years. For example, inside <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">the </ins>Marine Reserves the abundance of species of ecological and commercial importance, such as the snapper ''Pagurus auratus'' and the spiny lobster ''Jasus edwardsii'' are almost 9 and 4 times, respectively, more abundant inside reserves than in adjacent unprotected areas. Furthermore, the mean body size of these animals is significantly larger inside reserves than outside <ref> Babcock, R.C., Kelly, S., Shears, N.T., Walker, J.W. <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">and </ins>Willis, T.J. 1999. Changes in community structure in temperate marine reserves. Marine Ecology Progress Series 189: 125-134</ref>. To reduce the effect of overexploitation, it is necessary to create a coherent network of highly protected Marine Reserves that not only represent biodiversity hotspots, but also all marine habitats that are important for the reproduction and life cycle of endangered species <ref>Ballantine, W.J. and Langlois, T.J. 2007<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">. </ins>Marine Reserves : The need for systems. Hydrobiologia 606<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">: </ins>35-44</ref>.</div></td></tr>
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Dronkers J
https://www.marinespecies.org/i/index.php?title=Overexploitation&diff=78480&oldid=prev
Dronkers J at 16:52, 26 December 2020
2020-12-26T16:52:56Z
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<a href="https://www.marinespecies.org/i/index.php?title=Overexploitation&diff=78480&oldid=78479">Show changes</a>
Dronkers J
https://www.marinespecies.org/i/index.php?title=Overexploitation&diff=78479&oldid=prev
Dronkers J: Created page with "Overexploitation or overfishing is the removal of marine living resources to levels that can not sustain viable populations. Ultimately, overexploitation can lead to resource..."
2020-12-26T15:08:19Z
<p>Created page with "Overexploitation or overfishing is the removal of marine living resources to levels that can not sustain viable populations. Ultimately, overexploitation can lead to resource..."</p>
<p><b>New page</b></p><div>Overexploitation or overfishing is the removal of marine living resources to levels that can not sustain viable populations. Ultimately, overexploitation can lead to resource depletion and put a number of threatened and endangered species at risk for extinction.<br />
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A greater variety of species at a higher trophic level is exploited in the sea than on land: humans exploit over 400 species as food resources from the marine environment; whereas on land only tens of species are harvested for commercial use. Exploitation of marine biodiversity is also far less managed than on land and amounts to the hunter-gatherers stage that humans abandoned on land over 10,000 years ago, yet exploitation technology is becoming so advanced that many marine species are threatened to extinction. Insufficient consideration has been given to the unexpected and unpredictable long-term effects that such primitive food-gathering practices engender. <br />
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[[image:fish overexploitation.jpg |thumb|right|Fig. 1. Overexploitation of fish stocks is a major threat to marine biodiversity in Europe. Photo © OAR NURP,NOAA]]<br />
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== The problem ==<br />
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The exponential growth in human population experienced in last decades has lead to an overexploitation of marine living resources to meet growing demand for food. Worldwide, fishing fleets are two to three times as large as needed to take present day catches of fish and other marine species and as what our oceans can sustainably support. The use of modern techniques to facilitate harvesting, transport and storage has accelerated this trend.<br />
According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) over 25% of all the world's fish stocks are either overexploited or depleted and 52% are fully exploited <ref> The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture (SOFIA) www.fao.org/sof/sofia/index_en.htm</ref>. Thus a total of almost 80% of the world's fisheries are fully to overexploited, depleted, or in a state of collapse. Although, these estimates are considered rather conservative. Recently, a study showed that 29% of fish and seafood species have collapsed (i.e their catch has declined by 90%) and are projected to collapse within by 2048, unless inmediate action is taken <ref>Worm, B. et al. Impacts of biodiversity loss on ocean ecosystem services. Science 314, 787-790</ref>. Worldwide about 90% of the stocks of large predatory fish stocks are already collapsed.<br />
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Overexploitation do not only affect [[open ocean]] or pelagic ecosystems, but also coastal and intertidal areas <ref>Thompson, R.C., Crowe, T.P, Hawkins, S.J. (2002) Rocky intertidal communities: past environmental changes, present status and predictions for the next 25 years. Environmental Conservation 29(2): 168–191</ref>. For example, intertidal limpets in Hawaii (''Cellana'' spp.), the Azores, Madeira and Canaries (''Patella'' spp.) have all shown declines, and in the case of the Azores, dramatic population crashes owing to food gathering <ref>Hawkins, S.J., Corte-Real, H.B.S.M., Pannacciulli, F.G., Weber, L.C. & Bishop, J.D.D. (2000) Thoughts on the ecology and evolution of the intertidal biota of the Azores and other Atlantic Islands. Hydrobiologia 440: 3–17</ref><br />
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== Overexploitation effects ==<br />
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All fishing activities, if not conducted in a sustainable non-destructive manner, can lead to overexploitation of marine living resources. Overexploitation of marine resources has major impacts on marine systems as a whole, but target species are generally the most impacted.<br />
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Fishing effect can be divided into: '''direct effect''' and '''indirect effects'''.<br />
Direct effects are related to target species and [[by-catch]] species. <br />
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== Direct effects ==<br />
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When recruitment of target species is relatively high, the average size of individuals is affected because larger individuals tend to be harvested and populations display signs of '''growth overfishing'''. When adult populations are heavily exploited the number and size of the adult population (spawning biomass) is reduced to a point that it has not the reproductive capacity to replenish itself, leading to '''recruitment overfishing'''.<br />
Direct effects of fishing also include physical disturbance by fishing gear than can cause scraping, scouring and resuspension of the substratum. The effects vary according to the gears used and the habitats fished <ref>Jennings, S. & Kaiser, M. (1998). The effects of fishing on marine ecosystems. ''Adv. Mar. Biol.'' 34: 201-352.</ref>.<br />
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[[image:Tuna4.JPG|thumb|right|Fig. 2. Tuna fisheries represent a typical case were the growth overfishing of stocks can be generated by technological progress. Photo © NOAA]]<br />
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Trawling for [[demersal]] species is having a major effect on the habitat for species other than target species. It has been estimated that all of the sea bed of the North Sea is trawled over at least twice per year and the gear is getting heavier over time <ref>Sydow, J.S. (1990) Cruise report experiments on the interaction fishing gear (beamtrawl)-benthos with R.V. Mitra. BEON Rapport 8, 1-57. </ref>. Trawls have destroyed long-lived species of molluscs and echinoderms in the North Sea. Since these species play important functional roles in biogeochemical cycling the consequences may be far-reaching.<br />
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== Indirect effect ==<br />
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Fishing not only has direct effects on target populations but also results in indirect effects such as effect of "'''goast fishing'''", '''trophic cascading effects''' <ref>Pauly, D.; Christenen, V.; Dalsgaard, J.; Froese, R.; Torres, F. Jr. (1998). Fishing Down Marine Food Webs. Science 279: 860-863</ref> and '''food web-competion'''.<br />
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'''Trophic cascading effects''' has been observed when top-level predators are removed resulting in indirect effects throughout the ecosystem <ref> Jennings, S., Kaiser, M.J. (1998) The effects of fishing on marine ecosystems. Advances in Marine Biology 34:201–352</ref>. On many temperate reefs shifts from macroalgae-dominated habitats to habitats grazed by sea urchins, termed ‘urchin barrens’, have been linked to the over-harvesting of top predators <ref>Shears NT, Babcock RC (2003) Continuing trophic cascade effects after 25 years of no-take marine reserve protection. Marine Ecology Progress Series 246: 1-16</ref>, <ref>Sala, E., Boudouresque, C.F., Harmelin-Vivien, M. (1998) Fishing, trophic cascades, and the structure of algal assemblages: evaluation of an old but untested paradigm. Oikos 82:425–439</ref>. Perhaps the best known example of this is the interaction between sea otters, sea urchins and kelp <ref>Duggins, D.O. (1980) Kelp beds and sea otters: an experimental approach. Ecology 6:447-453</ref>. The importance of the sea otter-urchin-kelp trophic cascade was demonstrated after sea otters were wiped out by harvesting for their fur, allowing their prey, sea urchins, to overgraze kelps and dominate many benthic ecosystems. After the repopulation of areas by otters, kelp and its associated communities became much more abundant. <br />
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[[image:Turtle_ghost_fished.jpg |thumb|left|Fig. 3. Indirect effects of fishhing include "Ghost fishing" from fishing nets left or lost in the ocean by fishermen. Photo © NOAA]]<br />
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'''[[Ghost fishing]]''' result from fishing nets that have been left or lost in the ocean by fishermen. These nets, often nearly invisible in the dim light, can be left tangled on a rocky reef or drifting in the open sea. They can entangle fish, dolphins, sea turtles, sharks, dugongs, crocodiles, seabirds, crabs, and other creatures, including the occasional human diver. Acting as designed, the nets restrict movement, causing starvation, laceration and infection, and — in those that need to return to the surface to breathe — suffocation.<br />
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== Conservation tools ==<br />
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Conservation tools and techniques for preserving marine biodiversity conservation tend to combine theoretical disciplines, such as population and community marine biology, with practical conservation strategies, such as setting up marine reserves or marine protected areas (MPAs). Other techniques include developing sustainable fisheries, which involves establishing fishing quotas and restoring the populations of endangered species through artificial means.<br />
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Another focus of conservation effort is to halt human activities that are detrimental to the marine environment through policies or legislations, at an international, European and/or regional level.<br />
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Education of the general public about conservation issues is key in the process of conservation of the marine environment. There are many marine conservation organisations throughout the world that focus on funding conservation efforts, educating the public and stakeholders, and lobbying for conservation law and policy (see below). <br />
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== Marine Reserves and Marine Protected Areas ==<br />
<br />
Very little (less than 1%) of the earth oceans are protected, compared to 12% of the land surface. Highly-protected Marine Reserves are areas of the sea where human disturbances are minimised, allowing to maintain the natural biodiversity or, more often, to recover it to a more natural state. In Europe there are very few Marine Reserves, they are small and almost all are in the Mediterranean.<br />
While, there are many Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in Europe, these areas only have some extra regulations or planning procedures, but they do not fully protect marine biodiversity. Inside Marine Reserves all extractive and potentially-disturbing human activities are prohibited. Marine Reserves are of crucial importance to science and education, essential for conservation, useful in resource management and necessary for reversing the effects of overexploitation. The benefits of marine reserves has been shown in New Zealand where twenty marine reserves have been created over the last 25 years. For example, inside Marine Reserves the abundance of species of ecological and commercial importance, such as the snapper ''Pagurus auratus'' and the spiny lobster ''Jasus edwardsii'' are almost 9 and 4 times, respectively, more abundant inside reserves than in adjacent unprotected areas. Furthermore, the mean body size of these animals is significantly large inside reserves than in outside <ref> Babcock, R.C., Kelly, S., Shears, N.T., Walker, J.W., Willis, T.J. (1999). Changes in community structure in temperate marine reserves. Marine Ecology Progress Series 189: 125-134</ref>.<br />
There is an urgent need for a representative, replicated, networked and sustainable system of highly-protected Marine Reserves <ref> Ballantine, W.J. and Langlois, T.J. (2007) Marine Reserves : The need for systems. Hydrobiologia 606, 35-44. </ref>.<br />
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==See also==<br />
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*[[Effects of fisheries on European marine biodiversity]]<br />
*[[Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)]]<br />
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==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br><br />
{{author<br />
|AuthorID=19217<br />
|AuthorFullName=Atalah, Javier<br />
|AuthorName=Jatalah}}</div>
Dronkers J